In this context, it seems reasonable to conclude that Weil is referring to the Catholic Eucharist, or Eucharistia hostia. This is, of course, an intuitive conjecture, yet it remains plausible to suggest that Weil maintained a critical perspective towards the monotonous and arduous nature of factory labour. Moreover, she implies that the hostia has been reduced to a mere habit—an observation aligned with her critique of the increasing materialism and secularisation of the Church. I argue that this insight emerged from her personal experience as a labourer, leading her to realise that the act of consuming food and drink, devoid of the accompanying physical effort, could be seen as a more materialistic pursuit.
My preference for Weil, over many other philosophers and theologians, lies in her focused exploration of the condition of the ‘labourer’. Furthermore, her spiritual ‘turns’, which many find challenging to interpret, are consistently anchored in the figure of Jesus Christ. The issue of poverty tied to labour remains a pervasive and universal challenge, even in modern contexts. It is also worth noting that Jesus himself had a profound connection to labour, given that Joseph, his foster father, was a carpenter.
＊＊＊
・Travail manuel. Pourquoi n’y a-t-il jamais eu un mystique ouvrier ou paysan qui ait écrit sur l’usage du dégoût du travail ? La pesanteur et la grâce
・（Manual labour. Why has there never been a labourer or peasant mystic who wrote about the experience of disgust towards work?）
・Travail manuel. Le temps qui entre dans le corps. Par le travail l’homme se fait matière comme le Christ par l’Eucharistie. Le travail est comme une mort.
（Manual labour. Time enters the body through labour. Through work, man becomes matter, just as Christ becomes matter through the Eucharist. Labour is akin to death.）
＊＊＊
This assertion appears in Gravity and Grace (La pesanteur et la grâce), where Weil reflects on the mystery of labour, drawing a parallel between work and the transformation that Christ undergoes in the Eucharist. This connection evokes Christ’s anguished cry from the cross: “My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?”—an expression of divine abandonment. Christ suffered fully as a human being, and conveying the meaning behind these beliefs can be profoundly challenging. Faith is often deeply intuitive and internal, making it difficult to articulate through rational discourse alone. From a Catholic perspective, reflecting on why one might embrace Catholicism involves recognising the inherent contradictions within the institution, which may serve as part of its appeal.
In early Christianity, the teachings of Jesus were transmitted orally and through personal encounters, embodying a distinctly spiritual and individual approach to faith. As the Church’s influence expanded within the Roman Empire, however, faith became increasingly institutionalised, with doctrines and rituals formalised over time. This evolution established faith as an entity rooted in institutional authority, often intertwined with political power. Catholicism continues to value mystery and intuition, yet these elements have also been absorbed into its institutional framework. Although Weil’s exact reasons for embracing Catholicism remain unknown, I believe it was the very contradictions within the faith that captivated her. Amidst the materialism and corruption that taints some members of the clergy, she found solace in her connection with the humanitarian Fr Perrin. When I challenged Fr Perrin on the Church’s practice of excommunication, he replied in writing, comparing it to an act of weeping. Regrettably, this letter never reached Weil.
Weil recounts three significant encounters with Catholicism following her factory experience. The first occurred in a small Portuguese village, where she witnessed fishermen’s wives singing sorrowful hymns. This encounter led her to perceive Christianity as a “religion of slaves,” realising that those who suffer need faith for solace—and that she, too, was one of these “slaves.” The second encounter took place in Assisi in 1937, where, for the first time, she knelt in a small chapel associated with St Francis, experiencing a profound reverence for God. She also immersed herself in the liturgy at Solesmes, enduring severe headaches but finding comfort in the beauty of the hymns and words. These experiences offered her a glimpse into the possibility of understanding divine love beyond human suffering, etching the Passion of Christ deeply into her spiritual consciousness.
For her third encounter, Weil committed to reciting the Lord’s Prayer (Pater) in Greek each morning with complete focus. During these prayers, she often experienced a profound silence, sometimes feeling as though her thoughts transcended her physical body, enabling her to sense the loving presence of Christ. This practice of prayer became a vital means of direct contact with the divine for her. Her engagement with Catholicism left a significant imprint on her thoughts and beliefs.
The term “Catholicism” in this context encompasses the formal doctrines, rituals, and institutions of the Catholic Church, along with its social and cultural impact. The Pope is viewed as the supreme authority, and Catholicism emphasises the institutional and public dimensions of tradition-based education and social action. It can be described as an “outward-looking” phenomenon, centred on the officially recognised doctrines and institutions of the Roman Catholic Church. Although personal “intuition” remains vital for practising Catholics, it is noteworthy that Weil—despite her deep involvement—never received baptism, or passed away before she could do so, suggesting that her spirituality transcended institutional boundaries.
Weil’s factory experience allowed her to empathise with the suffering of others and to recognise herself as a “slave.” This realisation profoundly shaped her spirit, leading her to see herself as an anonymous figure within society, much like Christ, who bore the weight of human suffering.
The Psalms of the Old Testament offer a poetic connection between God and humanity, expressing a spectrum of emotions through praise, prayer, and lament. Other biblical texts, such as the Song of Solomon, Job, Proverbs, Lamentations, and sections of Jeremiah and Isaiah, also contain poetic elements. However, the New Testament does not portray Jesus Christ in poetic form.
Why, then, is Jesus not praised through poetry? This absence may reflect the early Christian focus on spreading the faith and establishing communities within the material world. The practical need to communicate teachings clearly and accessibly took precedence over poetic expression, leaving any poetic sentiment about Jesus to the reader’s interpretation. The narrative structure and instructive parables used in the Gospels were essential for conveying the message to diverse audiences across different cultures and languages.
In this context, Weil’s concept of the ‘labourer’ serves as a symbolic connection to Jesus. It is not merely physical sustenance that labourers require, but rather the nourishment of the soul and imagination.
Even today, the issues surrounding poverty and labour are not easily categorised as either social problems or matters of personal responsibility; they remain deeply intertwined, presenting challenges without clear solutions. Viewing poetry solely as an act of creative expression reflects a subjective perspective, reminiscent of Plato’s theories. However, my focus has been on Weil’s engagement with Catholicism, despite her not being baptised.
Can we view labourers not as mere material beings but as individuals who share in Christ’s suffering?
While the hostia, representing Christ’s flesh, may exist within sacred rituals, it is undeniable that institutional corruption often reduces it to mere bread. Labourers need more than this—they require a poetic sentiment capable of inspiring and enriching their lives. Historically, poetry has expressed devotion and reverence towards God, articulating moral and ethical ideals. To what extent, though, can humanity embrace such ideals today?
Weil does not deny the necessity of bread in addressing physical hunger; rather, she distinguishes between this and the spiritual nourishment she seeks. Her writings call for a deeper exploration of suffering and the human experience, frequently referencing Jesus Christ as a guiding figure. In doing so, she reveals a profound religious intuition that underpins her perspectives on contradiction and transformation.
Ⅷ. Reflections
Perhaps you may glimpse poetic sentiment in the theme of ‘light and shadow.’ I wonder what thoughts stir within you as you observe the shadows cast by trees and the way light dances upon an outdoor wall. The delicate interplay between light and shadow conjures countless associations. Shadows, it could be said, are ephemeral—born from the presence of light, yet perpetually shifting and fleeting. If we draw upon Plato’s allegory of the cave, we might surmise that what we perceive as reality is but a shadow of the true essence, a projection on the wall that we mistake for the real. This enchanting scene offers only a fragment of truth, revealing but a glimpse of a larger whole.
In Japanese thought, this interplay evokes the concept of mujo—impermanence—capturing the transient meeting and parting of light and shadow. In Japanese literature, cherishing such seemingly insignificant moments is, in itself, a literary act. Gaston Bachelard, for his part, refrained from naming such experiences, instead drawing profound meaning from the essence of the fleeting moment.
While some may interpret this view as offering solace to labourers, my perspective has been shaped by Christian evangelism. Light and shadow, deeply symbolic throughout tradition, reveal beauty wherever the heart is open to see it. Yet if we are to embrace the full scope of Weil’s reflections on ‘labour,’ we must look beyond the mere interplay of light and shadow. We are called to confront the very symbol of ‘labour’ itself, not in its economic sense, but as a representation of poverty. Symbols, which merge the tangible with the abstract, demand both conceptual understanding and authentic engagement with reality.
One might say that while poetic sentiment grants us a certain freedom, we must also tread the path of poverty that Jesus embodies.
In Matthew 25:40, Jesus offers a parable that illuminates his royal worthiness: “Whatever you did for one of the least of my brethren, you did for me.” Conversely, he warns, “What you did not do for one of these least, you did not do for me.” These words convey that service to the most vulnerable is, in essence, service to Jesus himself. Yet bound within this message are daunting challenges, tangled with complexity, leading us away from the realm of poetry and heartfelt inspiration.
Indeed, those who place their faith in Jesus Christ may encounter moments of profound intuition, a deep sense of spiritual insight. Yet to articulate the poverty that Jesus embraced, and to share its meaning with others, is no easy task. The human heart, it seems, is caught in tension—yearning to draw nearer to the divine mystery, while fearing to lose itself within it. In recognising my own impermanence, I discover within myself a compassion tinged with humility—a challenge that mirrors my understanding of Jesus. This reflection becomes the essence of my redemption: not a pursuit of abstract beauty, but of a beauty that longs to take tangible form.
Amid the complexities of doctrine and the mysteries of faith, I have anchored my thoughts in the figure of the ‘labourer.’ Honouring Joseph, the earthly father of Jesus, I pay tribute to Simone Weil, whose words resonate with this enduring theme. Through her eloquence, Jesus walks the landscape of the heart, emerging as a poetic sentiment. Though the New Testament does not portray Jesus in the language of poetry, it was perhaps Weil who most profoundly conveyed that the journey to discover this poetic truth lies within us.
Lastly, I have chosen to translate “Work” consistently as “Labour.” In English, “Labour” encompasses not only work but also the pains of childbirth, whereas French distinguishes between these meanings with different words. For Weil, however, the shared Latin root may have embodied a deeper connection. She left us with these poignant words in her notebooks: “Writing is akin to childbirth. One cannot help but strive to the point of feeling limits.” This is an experience familiar to anyone who has engaged deeply in writing, regardless of their grasp of Latin. Yet knowing Weil, it is likely she uncovered within this act a profound mystery.
In this light, perhaps she was indeed a ‘teacher’ in the truest and most profound sense.
Comments:
＊Although this work does not engage with Kantian thought, it is possible to reflect elements of Kant’s philosophy.
＊Les travailleurs ont besoin de poésie plus que de pain is part of the “Workers and Mysteries” chapter in Gravity and Grace, and it continues with Seule la religion peut être la source de cette poésie. (Only religion can be the source of this poetry).
＊I hope you will accept this critique, even though it references literature. While it does not mention Kantian thought, it can reflect it as well.
＊Les travailleurs ont besoin de poésie plus que de pain appears in the “Workers and Mysteries” chapter of Gravity and Grace, followed by Seule la religion peut être la source de cette poésie. (Only religion can be the source of this poetry).
References:
• Simone Weil 『La pesanteur et la grâce』『La Condition ouvrière』『Attente de Dieu』『La pesanteur et la grâce』
• Tome VI, volume 2, Cahiers 2 (septembre 1941- février 1942), Paris, Gallimard, 1997.
• George G. Humphreys, Taylorism in France, 1904-1920: The Impact of Scientific Management on Factory Relations and Society
• Plato / Allen, R. (TRN), 『The Republic』
• 暗い時代の三人の女性, 晃洋書房
• シモーヌヴェイユ アンソロジー, 河出出版
Please note that, as of now, this paper does not provide references to literature specifically addressing Catholic sacraments. The relevant details will be submitted at a later date.
・Travail manuel. Le temps qui entre dans le corps. Par le travail l’homme se fait matière comme le Christ par l’Eucharistie. Le travail est comme une mort.
＊Les travailleurs ont besoin de poésie plus que de pain.は重力と恩寵の「労働者と神秘」の章であり、Seule la religion peut être la source de cette poésie.この詩の源になれるのは宗教だけだ、と続きがあります。
＊I hope you will accept this critique, even though it refers to literature. While it does not mention Kantian thought, it can also reflect.
＊*Les travailleurs ont besoin de poésie plus que de pain. is the ‘Workers and Mysteries’ chapter of Gravity and Grace, and Seule la religion peut être la source de cette poésie. only religion can be the source of this poem. It continues with.
参照文献
Simone Weil 『La pesanteur et la grâce』『La Condition ouvrière』『Attente de Dieu』『La pesanteur et la grâce』
Tome VI, volume 2, Cahiers 2 (septembre 1941- février 1942), Paris, Gallimard, 1997.
George G. Humphreys『Taylorism in France, 1904-1920: The Impact of Scientific Management on Factory Relations and Society
Simone Weil’s life and philosophy were characterised by numerous intricate twists, as reflected in her writings, which offer a breadth of interpretations that often elude certainty as to whether she herself foresaw them. Her notebooks comprise a collection of fragmented reflections, which, after her death, were organised, edited, and published by her friends and fellow believers. Among her works, the celebrated Gravity and Grace (La pesanteur et la grâce) stands as a masterpiece, owing in no small part to the editorial contributions of Gustave Thibon.
The recurrent themes of ‘turning points’ and ‘contradictions’ in her philosophy, I argue, demonstrate a persistent consistency throughout Weil’s thought, especially in relation to her spiritual quest and profound engagement with Jesus Christ. Weil’s exploration of Jesus Christ led her to confront numerous religious and philosophical questions, which, I believe, served as a central axis that imparted coherence to her seemingly disparate transformations. Her efforts to reconcile faith with reason, and to deepen her understanding of life’s inherent suffering, demand thoughtful reflection, no matter how often one revisits them.
For me, engaging with her work remains an enduring source of profound joy.
Ⅱ.Premonition
In 1932–1933, a year before beginning her work in a factory, Simone Weil travelled to Germany to gain deeper insight into the foundations of fascism. In a letter dated 20 August, she observed that the Nazi Party had garnered support not only from the petit bourgeoisie but also from a significant number of unemployed individuals and other vulnerable groups. Although her stay in Berlin lasted just over two months, she retained vivid impressions of the city’s atmosphere. Former engineers struggled to obtain even a cold meal, yet no military personnel were visible on the streets.
At that time, Germany was grappling with widespread unemployment and severe hardship. In 1942, Weil confided in a letter to Father Perrin, with whom she shared a close relationship, expressing an inner conflict: “I know that if twenty German youths were to sing a Nazi song in unison before me at this moment, a part of my soul would instantly resonate with that of the Nazis. This is my profound vulnerability, yet it is how I exist.”
Upon her return from Germany, her analysis of the country encountered criticism from orthodox Marxists. Nevertheless, she endeavoured to support German exiles to the fullest extent possible.
Ⅲ .Turning Points and Contradictions
In his book Strength to Love, Martin Luther King Jr. draws on a quote attributed to a French philosopher, asserting that “a person who lacks a clear and prominent antithesis in their character is not strong.” However, the identity of the philosopher in question remains uncertain. King frequently invoked philosophical concepts in his speeches and writings, often referring to thinkers like Hegel to emphasise the necessity of balancing opposing forces to achieve harmony and progress. Hegel’s notion that truth emerges through the synthesis of thesis and antithesis aligns with King’s message of deriving strength and understanding through the reconciliation of differences and unity. Moreover, King observed that Jesus also preached about the fusion of opposites, as seen in his admonition: “I am sending you out like sheep among wolves,” and the instruction to “be wise as serpents and innocent as doves.” Although this teaching is undoubtedly demanding, it reflects the expectations that Jesus placed on his followers.
That said, Hegel was a German philosopher, which raises the question: which French philosopher might King have been referencing? Given the period, Gaston Bachelard is a plausible candidate. However, I argue that Simone Weil is equally likely. In late 1934, having resigned from her teaching post, Weil began working as a press operator in a factory, driven by a determination to confront the demands of the “real world.” Before embarking on this factory work, she had been preoccupied with the idea of creating “masterpieces” and “posthumous works.” Yet, the ideals she cherished proved difficult to sustain in the face of the harsh realities of factory life. She reflected on these experiences, recording: “I can’t help but think that interchangeable parts are like labourers. The parts seem to have more citizenship than we do,” as she entered the factory gate, displaying her numbered ID.
Simone Weil left behind a pivotal statement that encapsulates her philosophy: “What labourers need is not bread, but poetry.” During her time in Germany, she observed the plight of the unemployed and expressed her feelings of inadequacy to Father Perrin. The contradictions she grappled with in her philosophical and theological inquiries reflect the inherent complexity of human existence. Indeed, the notion that human essence is fundamentally complex has been explored by philosophers long before the advent of psychology. Plato’s tripartite conception of the soul and Aristotle’s examination of human nature in relation to logical virtues laid the foundation for this discourse. The exploration of human reason, emotion, and self-awareness evolved through the works of philosophers such as Descartes, Kant, and Hegel during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, expanding our understanding of the human mind. In the modern era, Freud’s scientific approach marked a critical turning point in this tradition.
Returning to Simone Weil, her assertion that “What labourers need is not bread, but poetry.” might appear paradoxical when juxtaposed with the brutal conditions of factory work. In such an environment, uncovering beauty and poetry presents a profound challenge. This tension echoes Hegel’s dialectic of thesis and antithesis. However, Weil’s philosophy, I contend, offers a distinctive perspective that requires deeper engagement with the complexities of the human spirit and psyche.
Weil also recognised that poetry could seem irrelevant to labourers, given the harshness of their daily struggles. She herself experienced the exhaustion and disillusionment intrinsic to physically demanding labour. Her philosophical explorations, particularly those rooted in biblical engagement, reflected the inner turmoil she faced. She even recorded that her distress in the factory was so overwhelming that she contemplated suicide by throwing herself into the River Seine.
Weil’s intellectual transitions and fragmented thoughts seem to form an inclusio structure, wherein statements that appear contradictory—much like the reflections of Koheleth in the Old Testament—gain coherence when examined in relation to one another. While Weil acknowledged that artistic expression had little relevance in the context of labour, she also explored the interplay between timepieces and artistry. She remarked that a clock, even when crafted with precision, functions without love, whereas a work of art requires love to resonate meaningfully. One may wonder why Weil insisted that “What labourers need is not bread, but poetry.” Even if we were to systematically outline the logical implications of her statement, conveying the mental state induced by labour at that time remains an arduous task.
I intend to unravel this challenge in my own way.
Ⅳ ouvrière and ouvrier
The direct translation of Simone Weil’s La Condition ouvrière is The Condition of the Labourer. The term ouvrière refers to female labourers, and in this work, Weil distinguishes between ouvrière and ouvrier, using the former to denote female labourers, including herself, and the latter to refer to male labourers. This distinction follows standard French grammatical conventions.
-mais jusqu’à quel point tout cela résisterait-il à la longue ? – Je ne suis pas loin de conclure que le salut de l’âme d’un ouvrier dépend d’abord de sa constitution physique.-
I am close to concluding that the salvation of a labourer’s soul depends primarily on their physical constitution.” While this idea is subjective, her use of ouvrier reflects an awareness of the collective and universal role of labourers. This distinction thus signifies both the importance of individual existence and a broader, societal perspective.
“mais jusqu’à quel point tout cela résisterait-il à la longue ? – Je ne suis pas loin de conclure que le salut de l’âme d’un ouvrier dépend d’abord de sa constitution physique. Je ne vois pas comment ceux qui ne sont pas costauds peuvent éviter de tomber dans une forme quelconque de désespoir – soûlerie, ou vagabondage, ou crime, ou débauche, ou simplement, et bien plus souvent, abrutissement – (et la religion ?). La révolte est impossible, sauf par éclairs (je veux dire même à titre de sentiment). D’abord, contre quoi ?”On est seul avec son travail, on ne pourrait se révolter que contre lui –La Condition ouvrière Simone Weil
Next, we turn to:
“But to what extent would all this endure over time? I am close to concluding that the salvation of a worker’s soul depends primarily on their physical constitution. I cannot see how those who are not robust can avoid falling into some form of despair—whether it be drunkenness, vagrancy, crime, debauchery, or simply, and far more often, stupefaction—and what of religion? Revolt is impossible, except in fleeting moments (even as a feeling). First, against what? One is alone with their work; one could only rebel against it.”
Weil’s expressive power is paradoxically revealed through her encounter with the flower of evil, exemplified by her exposure to the Bessarabo Affair (l’affaire Bessarabo) in 1920, when a man was murdered by his wife, and his body transported by train. This incident reflects the human longing for goodness, even in the midst of moral decay. Weil argues that the concept of sainthood—particularly of a female saint—is ultimately flawed. She possessed the strength to maintain opposition to idealised moral righteousness. Furthermore, her factory experience gave her first-hand insight into the lives of individuals lacking the resilience she had cultivated.
By ‘individuals lacking resilience,’ Weil refers to those without the physical and psychological endurance necessary to withstand harsh conditions. In this context, the physiological and psychological composition of the individual becomes critical in resisting social and economic pressures. For those with limited physical capacities, the risk of succumbing to despair in difficult environments increases substantially, often manifesting in addiction, social deviance, delinquency, or emotional paralysis. Moreover, their rebellions are typically reduced to brief emotional outbursts; without a clear target of opposition, the potential for meaningful change remains blocked.
映画：「渇水」
(Drought -渇水)
This tension is also evident in the increasingly complex nature of contemporary poverty. The film Drought (渇水) portrays the struggles of a municipal water department worker tasked with visiting households and businesses in arrears on their water bills. When payment cannot be collected, he must carry out water shut-offs, cutting off access to water. During a summer heatwave, the residents affected by these shut-offs do not always present sympathetic cases. Some have fallen into despair, losing any sense of priority or financial planning. Others appear selfish, failing to pay their bills due to gambling addictions. In some cases, mothers in arrears prioritise their smartphones over their families’ essential needs.
In this context, the term labourers primarily refers to the water department employees. These workers often bear the brunt of public frustration, facing insults such as, “You’re just working for taxpayer money.” This conflict illustrates the tension between institutional policy and individual responsibility. Water shut-offs are implemented based on public policy, which must be applied uniformly to all users to maintain fairness and sustainability. However, these workers, despite being agents of the system, are human and must enforce these policies while facing resentment from those unable to pay. This dynamic extends to vulnerable groups, including single mothers, some of whom depend on men who leave them financially and emotionally stranded. In such cases, financial survival—not mere pleasure—drives their behaviour. Even under these circumstances, the water department employee may assist by helping families store water before shutting off their supply.
(Social Support and Institutional Constraints)
Support systems within institutions and society must continuously evolve to accommodate the needs of the vulnerable. Conversely, decisions to withdraw support on a personal level become necessary to safeguard mental health and the sustainability of shared resources. As individuals do not possess infinite emotional or material resources, boundaries must sometimes be established to preserve long-term relationships. In practice, however, people rarely have the clarity to assess these considerations when overwhelmed by hardship. This may partly explain why society often seems indifferent to individual tragedies.
Weil’s writings highlight how institutional inadequacies and injustices—such as precarious employment and insufficient social security—constrain individuals and perpetuate cycles of poverty. However, her reflections transcend the conflict between institutions and individuals by focusing on human fragility. Her philosophical inquiries explore what individuals can do and what emotions ought to be nurtured between people. Yet, the boundaries of these inquiries remain ambiguous. Weil’s search for meaning unfolds through the ‘hypothetical truths’ she articulated in her factory diaries. It is here that her concepts of ‘turns’ and ‘contradictions’ demand both lived experience and abstract understanding.
Ⅴ The labourer and Poetry’ (1) Plato, ed.
In the secondary literature surrounding Simone Weil’s renowned work “Poetry for the Labourer,” many interpretations suggest that labourers may find salvation by cultivating sensitivity and mystical richness through engaging with poetry. However, I find that this reading does not align with my understanding of her text.
First and foremost, poetry revolves around ‘intuition,’ a concept that both the author and the reader must grasp. Yet, articulating such a concept within an academic or self-help framework is exceedingly difficult. Intuition resides in a realm that language may only partially express, never fully resolving it. While language is a powerful medium for conveying human experience and emotion, it remains inherently limited.
Spiritual fulfilment and cultural experiences often transcend the boundaries of language, relying on intuitive understanding and sensitivity. This realm encompasses complexities, depth, and contradictory emotions that resist verbal expression, manifesting instead as inner transformations and profound realisations. Weil herself noted that persuading others is challenging when relying solely on impressions without concrete evidence, yet she asserted that human misery could only be expressed through impressions: “Misery is constituted solely of impressions.” Through her writing, she captures the nuanced layers of human experience that extend beyond words.
In early 20th-century France, Taylorism—a system of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the United States—was widely criticised. Taylorism divided labour into smaller tasks to maximise productivity, clarifying the roles of individual workers. However, the outbreak of World War I forced France to adopt Taylorist principles to facilitate the mass production of munitions. The need for efficiency and large-scale output led to the application of task specialisation and standardisation, improving productivity but rendering the work more monotonous and exhausting. Labourers faced faster-paced tasks with reduced autonomy, and both women and children entered the workforce. After the war, France pursued economic reconstruction and industrialisation, often under difficult conditions. Many factories operated with lax safety standards, subjecting workers to long hours and constant risks of injury. Wages were low, leaving working-class families in crowded, dilapidated housing, barely able to meet their basic needs. In this environment, Weil encountered the dehumanising aspects of factory work and observed the suppression of labourers’ potential.
Despite its limitations, recognising the value of language remains essential for fostering empathy and holistic understanding. Beauty, sensitivity, and intuition play crucial roles in bridging the gaps left by verbal expression. At the age of 16 in 1925, Weil demonstrated an early appreciation for the symbolic nature of wisdom, observing that “Plato’s thought is most beautiful when revealed through myths.” Although she frequently referenced Plato, her interpretations of Books VI and VII of The Republic were uniquely her own.
Weil engages with Plato’s metaphor of the ‘gigantic animal’ (θηρίον μέγα) in Book VI of The Republic, in which the state and society are likened to a vast and ferocious creature. This creature possesses distinct likes and dislikes, controlled by a ‘keeper’ who knows its tendencies well. What the creature favours is deemed “good,” and what it rejects is labelled “evil.” The key insight of this metaphor is that moral judgments are dictated by the preferences of the masses, symbolised by the animal. Plato warned of the dangers posed by societies governed by such relative and arbitrary standards. Weil aligns with this critique, emphasising that social morality is merely the reflection of collective preferences—nothing more than the likes and dislikes of a gigantic animal. She contended that morality, governed by social necessity, is inherently relative and can only be transcended through divine intervention. True goodness, in her view, must be directly revealed by God to the human soul.
Weil extends her engagement with Plato by reinterpreting Book VII of The Republic through the lens of love and ethics. Using the famous allegory of the cave, she argues that “humans must turn towards the good and love beyond themselves,” advocating for ethical growth grounded in a relationship with God rather than in intellectual achievements alone. Her interpretation moves beyond Plato’s educational theories, emphasising the moral and religious dimensions of human development. In Plato’s original text, the allegory of the cave depicts the gradual progression from ignorance to knowledge. While the focus is not on love, Weil reinterprets the allegory as a meditation on the capacity to love and the impossibility of self-love, comparing the eye’s inability to see itself directly with the limits of self-love.
Even in modern times, based on my own experience, when I worked part-time as a newspaper collector in 2013, I had to visit households to collect payments. The area I was assigned to mainly consisted of elderly people living in poverty. As solicitation and collection were handled by different personnel, I often received complaints about discrepancies between what had been promised and what was delivered. When payments could not be collected, I had to visit the same households two or three times. In practice, several elderly individuals were locked into auto-renewed newspaper subscriptions, unable to read what they purchased or withdraw cash due to physical infirmities. In some instances, I found elderly women wearing adult nappies, unable to dress themselves, calling out for help. Despite their circumstances, collectors could only leave notifications of unsuccessful payment attempts. Rooms were often filled with neglect and strong odours, a testament to the overwhelming difficulties these individuals faced.
Collectors lacked the authority to cancel contracts, even when it was clear that the other party could not fulfil their obligations. Without an explicit request to cancel, I had no power to advise them otherwise. These experiences revealed the limitations of personal enlightenment and sensitivity in addressing poverty and incapacity.
Collection work, while straightforward, does not cultivate transferable skills or essential competencies. It is a task that even children could perform, offering those without experience or qualifications an opportunity to earn a modest income. However, it requires patience and a significant degree of inner resolve. In stark contrast, proficiency in my primary occupation, details of which I will withhold, directly correlates with skill development through the completion of tasks. Skills gained from collection work, however, rarely translate into other career opportunities.
It is important to acknowledge that the situations I witnessed in these homes could one day become my own reality. Life viewed through a strictly materialistic lens suggests that a severe brain injury could render me incapable of sustaining my current lifestyle. If existence is reduced to mere materiality, the erosion of human dignity becomes an ever-present risk.
It may be argued that Simone Weil’s exploration of love and God was profoundly influenced by Platonic thought, particularly by reflections on the absurdity of Socrates’ execution, which deeply affected Plato himself. Articulating such abstract concepts is no small feat, requiring the translation of intuitive insights into verbal expression. Yet, for Simone Weil, this task was indispensable.
Following the Platonic tradition, Weil believed that liberation from the tyranny of society’s ‘great beast’ could only be achieved by transcending egocentric perspectives and locating one’s value in a relationship with God. For Weil, the inherent human capacity for love manifests in turning one’s attention beyond the material world, discovering true goodness through divine connection. This pursuit, for her, embodied the Platonic “Idea.” Plato’s exploration of ideal societies and true beauty rested on the notion that material existence is transient, with real value residing in the intangible. This resonates with Weil’s yearning for spiritual depth, symbolised by her emphasis on “poetry.”
Continued in ‘Labour and Poetry (2): The Christ Edition.
シモーヌ・ヴェイユの「工場日記」はLa Condition ouvrièreと直訳すると、「労働者の条件」となる。ouvrièreとは女性の労働者を表していて、本作では女性労働者ouvrièreと男性の労働者ouvrierが分けて書かれている。基本的には自身を表している、もしくは女性労働者の場合が前者、そうでない場合は後者と、フランス語の文法通りのことだが、mais jusqu’à quel point tout cela résisterait-il à la longue ? – Je ne suis pas loin de conclure que le salut de l’âme d’un ouvrier dépend d’abord de sa constitution physique.と、ヴェイユが「労働者」の魂の救済は、何よりもまず体質に左右されるということに、すぐに結論づけてしまいそうになる、と主観的な考えであっても、彼女は労働者をouvrierとすることによって、労働者全体に対する普遍的で社会的な役割を意識しているようにも感じる。この使い分けは、個々の存在の重要性と、社会全体を見渡す視線の両方が含まれている。
そして次に続く
“mais jusqu’à quel point tout cela résisterait-il à la longue ? – Je ne suis pas loin de conclure que le salut de l’âme d’un ouvrier dépend d’abord de sa constitution physique. Je ne vois pas comment ceux qui ne sont pas costauds peuvent éviter de tomber dans une forme quelconque de désespoir – soûlerie, ou vagabondage, ou crime, ou débauche, ou simplement, et bien plus souvent, abrutissement – (et la religion ?). La révolte est impossible, sauf par éclairs (je veux dire même à titre de sentiment). D’abord, contre quoi ?”On est seul avec son travail, on ne pourrait se révolter que contre lui –La Condition ouvrière（工場日記）シモーヌ・ヴェイユ
In August 2014, I was baptized. However, before that, I had a dream. But prior to the dream, I had been reading the story of the ten maidens in chapter 25 of the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament. At the time, I wasn’t really concentrating—I probably just skimmed the surface of the story and didn’t grasp what it was about. I was sleepy and not paying attention, so I thought it hadn’t registered in my mind. I didn’t even remember the characters clearly, which I’m sure happens to everyone occasionally. I read it casually and closed the book. If this had been a modern literature test, it would have been fatal. That’s how little I understood.
I didn’t even think about rereading it the next day. Without any second thought, I simply wrote ‘Matthew 25’ and the last verse I had read on a post-it note, stuck it on my desk, closed the book, and went to sleep.
When I came to, I felt a heaviness, but I realized I had been woken in my dream. A man grabbed my arm and asked if I had it, or not, in a language I couldn’t identify—whether it was Japanese or another language. The lamp I was holding was about to go out, so I felt like I didn’t have it. Yet I remembered going back home to get it and bring it with me. The woman beside me laughed, but I began to think I did have it. So, I answered, “I have it.”
And indeed, I had the oil and lit the lamp. The moment the light shone, it was like a wheat field glowing under the night sky. I clearly remember that moment when the lamp was lit. It’s been ten years, so perhaps that memory isn’t entirely accurate. The night sky seemed eerie, but as soon as the light came on, I felt a sense of relief as if my life had been saved.
Together with the other women and the bridegroom, I was told, “You go in too,” and walked out of the gate. Then, behind me, I saw a few women who didn’t have oil and didn’t make it in time—they turned into shadows, unable to pass through the gate.
In the dream, I realized, “Ah, you always need to have fuel, or you won’t be saved in times of need.” While I felt elated at my salvation, I was also pained by the thought of those left behind as shadows.
When I woke up, I thought it was an unusual dream, but it quickly faded into my daily routine. When it was time to read the Bible again, I looked at the post-it note and realized that it was from the “Ten Maidens” passage I had read the night before. However, at that time, before falling asleep, I didn’t understand any of the story. Yet upon reading it again, I found that it mirrored almost exactly what I had dreamt. I thought I had grasped it better, but it never appeared in my dreams again.
A dream is not something that is supposed to be connected to another person who appears in it.
Even if the events align with true memories, a dream isn’t about spending time with others. It is a story shown to me based on my own “impressions”.
I wonder if there is truly something beyond the grasp of the conscious and unconscious mind. This is sometimes debated among different schools of psychology, but if this wasn’t the unconscious mind, it would be challenging to explain otherwise. Mystical experiences delve even deeper. For a time, I had a personal theory about why the dream interpreters like Joseph, who interpreted Pharaoh’s dreams in Genesis, and Daniel from the Book of Daniel appeared in the Old Testament, but seemed to disappear when Jesus came in the New Testament. However, in hindsight, I realized this theory didn’t resonate with many people（few people). That seemed like youthful thinking. Over the past ten years, I’ve come to understand that Christianity cannot sustain itself on such ‘wonders’ alone. There were times I felt it was foolish to even talk about it.
Nevertheless, the memory of this dream lingered, leaving a distinct sense of mystery in its wake. The past decade has been a journey of witnessing miracles, only to realise that such experiences alone aren’t sufficient for evangelism. There were moments of joy and others of discontent. That dream, however, left an indelible mark, prompting a sense of certainty amidst uncertainty. The miracle lies not merely in its occurrence, but in the privilege of recounting it—a story I now preserve for future telling.
The paramount lesson here is the daily commitment to the practice of Jesus’ teachings and the labour He undertook amongst people. As Benedict XVI articulated, “The Father and the Son engage in a mutual exchange of pure giving and receiving, in which both abound. This unity is their fruition, wholly one.” He further noted, “the mystery of the Trinity, in this world, must be transmuted into the mystery of the Cross.”
This profound beauty inherently encompasses suffering. The Holy Spirit, manifesting from abundance, does not solely symbolize human joy. Many believers aspire to discuss these mysteries, seeking companions to converse about the Scriptures. Yet such dialogues cannot rest on superficial enjoyment alone, for empathizing with the essence of the Trinity proves significantly challenging. Much like our experiences, which remain solitary ‘dreams,’ forging deeper connections with ‘others’ isn’t effortlessly achieved despite apparent ease in some respects. The narrative of faith, I surmise, involves the exchange of suffering, a pursuit I no longer actively seek. To comprehend each other’s faith, recognising its profound complexity, is a mature realization.
Discussing such matters amidst diverse backgrounds and destinies often brings discomfort. It’s indeed challenging to reconcile varying degrees of misfortune. A single word cannot offer salvation, though a considerate gesture might be a preliminary step towards it, with outcomes remaining perpetually uncertain. It would be disingenuous to speak of Jesus’ acts of compassion purely as sources of comfort, yet there is truth in the solace they bring. The intersection of shared poverty and mutual suffering is intensely painful. Faith, though seemingly dormant, is ever alive—requiring constant sustenance.
Until the day the unrecognised maiden and bridegroom unite, fuel is always needed.
Ten years ago, I regarded that dream as a good one. To still hold it as such implies a transformation in my heart. The vision of who I might become in another decade, when I may still say “it was a good dream,” eludes my imagination.
・We talked of this and that. I should not have remembered the conversation at all, had it not been for the fact that in the course of it we talked of one matter which was of particular interest to me.
Sensei lived in complete obscurity. Souseki Natume：Kokoro Translated by Edwin McClellan
Few people today would feel enthusiastic about the victory in the Russo-Japanese War. However, the death of Emperor Meiji and the suicide of General Nogi had an immeasurable impact on the Japanese people and the literature of the time. The “Sensei” in Natsume Soseki’s “Kokoro” was also inspired by these events to take his own life.
Meiji era and K
In Natsume Soseki’s novel “Kokoro,” the character known as “Sensei” also chooses to end his life following the deaths of both Emperor Meiji and General Nogi. The story’s narrator, a young man referred to as “I,” encounters a man accompanied by a Westerner at a seaside tea house in Kamakura. This man comes to be called “Sensei” by the narrator.
If you, the reader, were a teenager picking up this book without any prior knowledge, General Nogi might not occupy your thoughts much. Initially, readers are likely to be drawn in by the narrative style of “Sensei” and “I,” the youthful student. Soseki skillfully has Sensei declare early on, “I am a lonely man,” which gradually draws the lonely young readers from the shore into the deeper, darker themes of death. This exploration extends beyond the simple end of life to questions of loyalty, righteousness, the enigma of suicide, and different views on life and death. Readers are left grappling with these themes, recalling that mourning is an act of the living, and are eventually brought back to reality, likely feeling profoundly moved by the experience.
At any age, and especially when young, people seek proof of ‘love’. This is why this story is so clever. The ‘Sensei’ tells ‘me’, who doesn’t know much about love, “But do you know, that there is guilt also in loving?”
The young man is drawn to the Sensei because he wants to love, and because he is already driven by love.
The Sensei explained that this was but a preparatory step (a staircase to love). In this way, both ‘I’ and the reader come to stand on the same ground.
With this groundwork laid, the stage is set. From here, the reader descends into the section of Sensei’s ‘testament’. This novel, composed of the sections ‘Sensei and I’ and ‘My Parents and I’, features a young calligrapher as the narrator. However, the ‘Sensei’s Testament’ chapter takes us back to Sensei’s younger days. Sensei became distrustful of people after his parents died of illness, and his uncle embezzled his inheritance. Here, Sensei also articulates one truth: money changes people. He then sold his family home, leaving only his parents’ graves intact, and decided never to return to his hometown. He continued his education at Tokyo Imperial University, lodging with a military widow in his youth. He noted that the widow’s daughter, Shizu, exuded a fragrance of the opposite sex. There, both the widow and her daughter took good care of him, providing him with the best room.
Initially, he was suspicious of their kindness, but over time, he grew to trust and develop an affection for Shizu. This affection was less about sexual love and more akin to ‘faith’. While Sensei had his doubts about money, he harbored hopeful and unwavering beliefs about ‘love’. Sensei had a childhood friend named K（initial）K was the son of a temple priest but was adopted by another family on the condition that he would become a doctor by attending medical school. However, K felt that the spiritual demands of ‘devotion’ did not align with medicine, so he went to a different university, lying to his adoptive family. Eventually, the burden of this deception became too heavy for K, and he confessed the truth to his adoptive family. Naturally, K was disowned.
Sympathetic to K’s plight as he ran out of funds for his education and began to suffer a nervous breakdown, Sensei brought K to his own lodgings. K, influenced by his Buddhist upbringing, was a sincere and honest man. Therefore, it wasn’t long before he began to suspect that Sensei was becoming too friendly with Shizu. Ultimately, K confessed to Sensei that he had fallen in love with Shizu.
The Sensei wanted Shizu more than loyalty and friendship for his longtime childhood friend. So he offered to marry the young lady to her mother, without even telling Shizu directly.
The Sensei and Shizu got engaged, but he never told K. However, the young lady’s mother had already informed K about the engagement; K knew about it and talked to the Sensei in a normal way.
Then K committed suicide.
Death and Righteousness
The last part of the Sensei’s farewell letter referred to the fall of Emperor Meiji and the suicide of General Nogi. He tried to count the years during which General Nogi had contemplated suicide. But in the end, the Sensei could not understand General Nogi’s desire to commit suicide. And he left in his will that no one should understand his own death. Regarding this first-person and third-person death, the philosopher Jankélévitch described death as first-person death, second-person death, and third-person death, but this story encompasses all deaths, including suicide. As for second-person death, the Jewish rabbi Grollman says that it can take away the past, present, and future of the ‘I’. The Sensei may also have been deprived by K’s death. For us, the deaths of both Emperor Meiji and General Nogi are in the third person and psychologically distant, but Soseki nevertheless reflected the complexity of the human interior through “Kokoro”. The Sensei’s loneliness, guilt, and desire for love show that human nature remains the same, even if the historical background has changed. The Meiji era itself was a time of great change, and people’s attitudes and values were shaken.
Unlike the Christian concept of Logos—“the Word” that was with God from the beginning (John 1:1)—the Japanese notion of kotoba (言葉) does not carry the sense of a transcendent principle. Its etymology points instead to human utterance, something finite and situated at “the end of speech” rather than its divine origin. However, as Kitaro Nishida also mentioned, ‘There is something hidden in the very root of Japan, something akin to perceiving the form of the formless and hearing the voice of the voiceless,’ there exists a culture that finds beauty in impermanence and change, such as in the Tale of the Heike and Sonezaki Shinju. Therefore, when discussing Natsume Soseki, it might be desirable to view Japanese literature in light of the significance that cannot be intellectually constrained by what presently exists, keeping in mind the formless and voiceless meanings.
While there are indeed similarities between Christianity and Japanese literature in their pursuits to grasp the intangible, the barrier of language often obstructs my efforts to fully convey the concept of the transcendent God when translating Christian-related material. Nevertheless, I believe it is crucial not to equate ‘differences’ with ‘wrongness’ due to this, and I do not hold the belief that other countries are inherently superior. I see the act of incorporating the absent, the seeds sown by God, as essential for reaffirming our essence as Japanese individuals. It could be argued that we, from this side, might already be acquainted with the beauty in darkness if it seems a dark place from the other side. I take pride in understanding the beauty of the tragedy of the eight-year-old Emperor Antoku and the nun in the Tale of the Heike. Their deaths tell of what is to come, signaling the passing of time into oblivion. Despite my numerous visits to the shrine in Sonezaki, Osaka, there remains no trace of what the lovers contemplating suicide must have felt. This serves as a reminder that the vibrancy that once thrived there has not endured in the same way. This, one might say, is aesthetics.
Death is an impartial, inevitable aspect of our lives that disregards our thoughts and desires. Love, on the other hand, is subjective and mutable, adapting to individual emotions and values. Love may sometimes evoke feelings of remorse and inner turmoil. Death can be seen as a static entity, while love is dynamic and intimately personal. In ‘Kokoro,’ each character bears the burden of their own sins, with K carrying the guilt of lying about studying medicine and ultimately choosing suicide akin to Hamletesque. It remains uncertain when the Sensei contemplated confessing his sins.
Lastly, I would like to conclude by recounting the story from Luke 18:9-14. The Pharisees, convinced of their righteousness, prayed internally with self-righteousness. ‘I thank you, God, that I am not like others: swindlers, unjust, adulterers, or even like this tax collector…’ In contrast, the tax collector humbly prayed, ‘God, have mercy on me, a sinner.’ Jesus regarded the repentant tax collector as righteous.
In the midst of this, it seems that the Sensei was unable to live up to any of the former Bushido morals of “righteousness, bravery, humanity, courtesy, sincerity, honor, and loyalty”. Even the young woman he married was not important to him. In terms of modern values, how selfish he was! He didn’t work, he only had assets, and he died just so he could leave his fortune to his wife.
He was like a ‘nobody’ in this world. Prophetically, this ‘floating’ existence does not seem like something from the distant past. This is because many people today are still unclear about the meaning of existence and social responsibility. And the striking phrase “Love is a crime” expresses the state of “Kokoro,” which cannot be righteous even through love, in response to General Nogi, who committed suicide following the death of Emperor Meiji.
It could be said that death is something that does not require our input or opinion. But the soul speaks to us and questions us: was K’s irrevocable, unilateral ‘death’, in the context of Adlerian psychology, an act of ‘revenge and accusation’? Or did he carry out the ‘suicide’ that the proud Hamlet refrained from committing? Or perhaps it was like Melisande in Pelleas et Melisande, dying from wounds that even a little bird might not have succumbed to. K left behind a will and then died. The Sensei attempted to reconcile K’s demise in a manner analogous to Salome holding Jokanaan’s head. The Sensei was unable to demonstrate either righteousness or courtesy from start to finish. The Sensei could not believe that K’s will truly reflected his innermost feelings. Taking solely from the will’s contents, it would seem to convey a simple message: ‘I am a weak-willed person with no prospects for the future, so I choose to end my life.’ However, the Sensei stumbled upon the added words, seemingly inscribed by K with leftover ink, saying “I should have died earlier”, which caused him much consternation.
It seemed as if the will was blaming him, saying, ‘It’s your fault,’ but in reality, it was different. while the deliberate omission of certain truths could have eroded the Sensei’s sense of self-worth. It’s possible that there existed a language only comprehensible to the Sensei, and that there seemed to be a language that only the Sensei could hear, as if the shadow of his death loomed over him.The Sensei knew that comparing himself to General Nogi was presumptuous and, realising their differences, he continued to see his own existence as lacking value. Ananda left Buddha’s teachings for later generations, but the Sensei had no means to leave anyone a reason for K’s death.
For a long time, he had kept this burden, until he decided to leave his account, the ‘will’, to just one student. Not even Sizu, whom he married, understood why her close friend K had died. Her innocent sense of isolation was transient, yet there remained a single glimmer of hope amidst the uncertainty. That hope could perhaps be the young scribe reading the last testament on the train at the end. In that act, The Sensei may have finally transitioned from being an obscure individual to becoming a ‘master’ with a meaningful purpose.
I do not intend to connect the Sensei’s conscious repentance akin to that of the tax collector. His ‘death’ is not that. It seems he aimed for righteousness towards K and what could be likened to martyrdom towards the end of the Meiji era, fully aware that he was not akin to Emperor Meiji or General Nogi. Unable to discuss K even with his wife, he penned his life story to a youth who seemed lost. To me, this final act felt like a resistance against an aesthetic leaving no trace. This act of resistance could be seen as what’s ultimately beautiful. Despite declaring love as sinful, the Sensei persistently advised the young man on loving others. He seemed to insinuate that the subject of his apology would vanish. It’s a common misinterpretation among many Christians that a mere apology to God suffices, resembling the self-assured Pharisees. Shouldn’t this passage be interpreted as that Jesus does not wish for pursuits that fail to achieve righteousness? The Sensei could have shown more bravery throughout. He appeared cowardly, choosing to focus on himself rather than his wife. However, what he truly depicted is the inevitable truth that all things tangible will eventually fade away.
What is the contemporary ‘kokoro’?
An important part of addressing the challenges facing the modern Catholic Church is to listen to the complaints of victims. Calls for an apology should be seen as the voice of God and should be met with kindness and understanding. Even if the events happened decades ago, we must not trivialize them. If clergy receive criticism from believers, they should accept it as an opportunity for conversion.
In “Kokoro,” the characters are portrayed at the intersection of love and death, shifting from the first person to the second and third persons, making empathy as a third party significant in the relationship between this book and its readers. In the modern internet age, the right thing is not always received correctly.
I once translated ‘私刑’ (shikei) as ‘mob justice,’ which at the time might have been considered a mistranslation. However, recent events and public opinion have made me realize that this was not a mistake. In Japan, due to the lack of interest in Catholicism, there has been no mob punishment. However, when school teachers have committed similar acts, they have already suffered ‘private punishment,’ with their identities and photos being exposed online by mobs.
The proliferation of social networking sites has made the death and pain of others more immediate, yet the violent nature of mobs under the guise of sympathy is a significant issue. People working on the internet view this violence through the lens of “traffic.” In the future, AI may control inappropriate posts, but individual restraint will still be required.
Today, there is a growing need to distinguish oneself from others. Distant deaths should be considered irrelevant to oneself, and information about wars and disasters is often mingled with fake news, making verification difficult. Expressions of sympathy for victims can sometimes cause more harm, requiring prudence and discretion.
When you hear of someone’s death, intended kind words to the bereaved can be misunderstood and perceived as slander. In such an environment, those who can exercise self-control learn to distance themselves from others, while those who cannot may act violently as part of a mob.
Especially in the Catholic Church, it is crucial to acknowledge past sins, review doctrines and canon law, and take the lead in exercising self-control and self-discipline. We must respect the voices of the victims and understand the pain of revisiting past events. At the very least, we must not participate in any cover-up.
It is important to maintain a conscience, much like the shadow of K that haunted his Sensei. Just as Jesus acknowledged that some people are not righteous, ‘Kokoro’ includes characters ignorant of right and wrong, because the depths of the soul encompass a profound ignorance of good and evil
Everyone, always remember to be grateful for your life and the loved ones in it.
(Introduction)
– To be honest, I don’t really see the “Sensei
” as particularly virtuous, kind of like Osamu Dazai in his way of life. Instead, I got the impression that the character “I” who found the “Sensei” shows potential. The way he picks up and collects memories about the Sensei, acting practically as a disciple, suggests he’s quite a personality. Now, obviously, it’s just a story, but real life isn’t that straightforward. If it were real, then the guy’s memory-gathering skills would be impressive. However, when I lean towards more morbid themes, mistakes seem to happen more often. Recently though, I’ve become more objective and I’ve written more naturally, without the same depth of immersion as before.
In terms of content, through Natsume Soseki’s “Kokoro,” I touched on the aesthetics of impermanence and the struggle against it. Given that K was a Buddhist, I chose elements of Buddhism, and for Christianity, I picked “The Pharisee and the Tax Collector.” Ultimately, this piece reflects the confusion of changing values from the Meiji era, pointing out that in modern times, it’s no longer always right to take the perspective of a third person as if it were your own.
Finally, he addressed the issue of injustice within Catholicism, noting that ethics have changed.In Japan, there is little interest in the matter of Catholic injustice, leading to no occurrences of ‘mob justice.’ （vigilantism）However, sometimes in Japan, ‘school teachers’ who have been involved in incidents are portrayed, including their faces, on social networking sites (SNS) on the internet.While mob power is undoubtedly violent, it’s not entirely evil. There are facts supporting that some found salvation in those situations, for those who couldn’t find help through official channels. Hence, I hope Christians exercise restraint before making such judgments. I also think I’ve brought a touch of contemporary interpretation to Jankélévitch’s “Death” of the third person.
I included Hamlet（Suicide in Conflict with Faith）and Pelléas and Mélisande（Deaths Unseen by Others, Where the Individual’s Strength Fades Away），Salome (because the figure gently lifts his head with both hands, as if to hold it, to see his face in death) to temper the portrayal of suicide.
I juxtaposed these two to soften the sensational depiction of suicide. I regret that I can only express this vaguely, but I do wonder if the metaphor still holds.（I’m not sure if the metaphor is still dead.）
Now, as Catholics, we have become more critical of the mob and our interpretation has evolved somewhat, yet it remains the elusive ‘evil’ that many people seek. In February 2022, it was still before the assassination of former Prime Minister Abe, and we were able to publish this article. However, criminal psychology is one of my research interests.
It was many and many a year ago, In a kingdom by the sea, That a maiden there lived whom you may know By the name of Annabel Lee; And this maiden she lived with no other thought Than to love and be loved by me.
Edger Allan Poe : Annabel Lee
（This is a column. Japanese version from the link below.）
I came across this poem when I was very young, and I may not have known what it meant at the time. But I liked the sound of that “Annabel Lee”. Language barriers may be insurmountable without experience and understanding, but ‘sound’ transcends them. For example, Jabberwocky in Lewis Carroll’s Alice Through the Looking Glass is an incoherent poem because it is made up of what the author calls ‘coined words’, but you can get an idea from the rhythm of the sound and, “For example, as the protagonist Alice remarked, when she said, ‘However, somebody killed something,’ she indicated that this much could be discerned from the nonsensical poem.”
The words that stick with me in Annabel Lee are: beautiful, kingdom by the sea, angel, demon, “Of the beautiful Annabel Lee” Even if it was in Japanese, that was enough for me, because each word has a ‘synesthesia’, but as I learn to understand English, I can tell that the poem is from a male perspective and that a girl, the beautiful Annabel Lee, has died. Then,as you develop a deeper appreciation for literature, you get to know the background of this poetic sentiment. We learn that this reflects the author Poe’s love for his first wife, Virginia.
I found that it reminds me of Novalis, the German writer and poet who died young. He too lost the love of his life at a young age; however, he was unable to complete what Freud called his ‘work of mourning’ (Trauerarbeit) — making peace with death to continue living in this world and prioritizing the living over the dead. For a long time, I had no doubt that Annabel Lee was such a poem. However, when I learned that Poe was engaged to another woman in the year the poem was written, and later died under suspicious circumstances, I simply thought it was not Novalisian, my mind lost its consistency, and the poem’s significance gradually diminished for me.
One rainy day, I went to my usual English Mass. Despite using an umbrella, both my clothes and hair got wet. Before Mass started, we said the rosary. Perhaps distracted by the droplets trickling down my hair, or perhaps subconsciously drawn to the notion of ‘water,’ I accidentally said “Kingdom by the sea” when we reached the word ‘Kingdom’. That phrase is from Poe’s poem. However, this slip of the tongue made me realize something. It dawned on me that the use of ‘kingdom’ in that poem was inherently Christian. ‘Thy kingdom come,’ where ‘thy’ is an archaic form of ‘you,’ translates to ‘adveniat regnum tuum’ in Latin.
In Latin ‘adveniat regnum tuum’, ‘adveniat’ is a conjunction, it does not mean ‘I’ or ‘you’, but expresses the desire for something ‘One’ to come; regum corresponds to dominion, sovereignty, to . This is a passage in which we pray that the world we live in may be reached by the Lord, if we were to put it ‘safely’ according to Japanese values.
After we die, while we imagine moving from this world to the heavenly kingdom (heaven), for those of us still living, ‘come’ is a prayer for God to turn towards us. I realized that the ‘kingdom’ in Poe’s poem represents a seaside cemetery, a site desiring God’s gaze.
There appears to be another true American story that served as inspiration for Edgar Allan Poe’s poem ‘Annabel Lee’, details of which were published in a newspaper two days after Poe’s death. The tale unfolds as follows: a young woman and a sailor, lovers despite differing social status, clandestinely met in a cemetery. Tragically, the maiden passed away. Her father refused to disclose the cemetery’s location to the sailor. Despite this, the sailor, who cherished her, persistently sought out her grave.
In his book ‘Departure from Love and Recognition,’ Japanese writer Kurata Hyakuso wrote: ‘I felt that I could not do without the soul that embraced me.’Kurata was in his twenties when he wrote this, and I believe it serves as a good example of poetry’ love.”
However, love alone is not enough. To actualize love, ‘sensation’ is necessary, requiring sensitivity.
I have always regarded ‘susceptibility’ and ‘gift’ as equivalent. Love inherently has an object, yet Confirming the ‘existence’ of sensitivity is not achieved by holding hands with someone or by asking someone. It simply resides within the heart, at a crossroads between being deemed ‘nature’ or a ‘gift’（god). While the two are inseparable, labeling susceptibility as ‘sacred to oneself alone’ leads to inherent contradictions. As Poe’s poetry illuminates, the vitality of susceptibility is rooted in its empathy on ‘others’, and should they neglect it, it risks withering into obscurity.
In Christianity, especially Catholicism, including the Catechism and Balthasar’s theology, faith involves more than just individual sensitivity and experience—it’s also about being rooted in the Church, society, and community. This point is often misunderstood; it does not imply depriving individuals of their sensitivity. When considering non-religion, a question arises: does it truly safeguard individual sensitivity? One advantage of non-religion is the freedom it offers from church involvement and the obligation to return one’s ‘gifts’ to God. Moreover, regardless of whether Jesus existed, the need for societal appreciation, contribution, and the necessity for a writer to present their work to society raise a question about ‘expropriation.’ What is the difference between being appropriated solely by secular standards and having one’s soul achieve something that is returned to God? This distinction is significant in the context of faith.
Well，See the end of Poe’s poem.
For the moon never beams, without bringing me dreams
Of the beautiful ANNABEL LEE;
And the stars never rise, but I feel the bright eyes
Of the beautiful ANNABEL LEE;
And so, all the night-tide, I lie down by the side
Of my darling — my darling — my life and my bride,
In her sepulchre there by the sea,
In her tomb by the sounding sea.
The poem prominently features refrains and a rhyme scheme toward its conclusion. Refrains like ‘Of the beautiful ANNABEL LEE;’ and ‘Of my darling — my darling — my life and my bride,’ emphasize the poem’s rhythmic and emotional depth. The rhyme pairs ‘dreams’ and ‘Lee’, ‘rise’ and ‘eyes’, ‘side’ and ‘bride’, and ‘sea’ and ‘sea’, reinforcing the auditory harmony and the poem’s meter. These grammatical elements are distinctive of Poe’s style, lending unique sound and rhythm to his poetry.
In the poem, the narrator lies ‘till dawn’ beside ‘Annabel Lee’s’ grave, located in a ‘kingdom by the sea.’ The imagery of the sea’s tide, coming and going, mirrors the words ‘bride’ and by the ‘side’. The choice to call the seaside tomb a ‘kingdom’ suggests Poe’s intention to portray it as a divine meeting place, a ‘kingdom’ awaiting God’s arrival, akin to a prayer invocation. Despite its melancholic tone, resonating with the essence of death, the poem is imbued with enduring love and happiness.
The ambiguity of both the girl and the narrator in the poem, with neither fully understanding who they are, realistically portrays the process of forgetting a love. In a state of being emotionally enveloped—or ‘soul-hugging’—such poetry could not be written. Instead, a more direct expression of love would likely emerge. The poem starts with ‘It was many and many a year ago…’, indicating a psychological distance, suggesting it represents a fading memory. Poe’s first wife, Virginia, was mentally handicapped and only 13 years old at their marriage. He also wrote hymns to Catholicism. Given these few circumstances, it’s difficult to ascertain his faith, especially since he left much mystery about his own awareness of impending death while loving and proposing to another woman. Yet, his attempt to preserve these feelings in his poetry might be considered a mysterious kind of ‘expropriation’.
Why do we discuss human love, or recite poetry? Why does human love prompt such associations?
The best proof of love’s existence could be two people hand in hand, living in their own small world without any divine intervention—surely a sweet existence. However, the body is not eternal; both ‘existence’ and consciousness fade and vanish. It is sensitivity that may light this reality on fire. And whether noble or impoverished, a couple in love eventually becomes ‘a story from long ago’. If, in realizing their disappearance, the couple sleeps in a ‘kingdom’, would that not equate to an eternity with God? It seems this was even the girl’s wish.
In the realm of literature, there resides a soul of a microcosm. Even for Catholics, the words of their prayers are repeated together with the remnants of souls left behind.
Because it has been recited by so many, it has become a prayer returning to God.
*Annabel Lee is said to have been modelled on his first wife, Virginia, who is the most likely candidate, but The actual model is not certain, as it was often sad for Poe to meet and part with women.
*There was a story that the story of the sailor and the girl was published in a newspaper during a competition in London, but no reliable source has now been found. Similarly, we asked if Virginia was mentally handicapped, but could not find a reliable source.
*Balthasar’s theology attributes obedience to Christ to the authority of God manifested in the claims of Jesus. Claim – poverty – expropriation – obedience to the cross Claim – poverty – ‘expropriation’ – obedience to the cross is the axis of his theology.
Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge / by Rainer Maria Rilke
Original text
①Und ich war es in der Tat. Ich war beschäftigt, ihn mir vorzustellen, ich unternahm die Arbeit, ihn einzubilden, und der Schweiß trat mir aus vor Anstrengung. Denn ich mußte ihn machen, wie man einen Toten macht, für den keine Beweise mehr da sind, keine Bestandteile; der ganz und gar innen zu leisten ist. Ich weiß jetzt, daß es mir ein wenig half, an die vielen abgenommenen Christusse aus steifigem Elfenbein zu denken, die bei allen Althändlern herumliegen. Der Gedanke an irgendeine Pietà trat vor und ab –: dies alles wahrscheinlich nur, um eine gewisse Neigung hervorzurufen, in der sein langes Gesicht sich hielt, und den trostlosen Bartnachwuchs im Wangenschatten und die endgültig schmerzvolle Blindheit seines verschlossenen Ausdrucks, der schräg aufwärts gehalten war.
②Ich wußte sofort, daß meine Vorstellung wertlos war. Die durch keine Vorsicht oder Verstellung eingeschränkte Hingegebenheit seines Elends übertraf meine Mittel.
（Zeitungsverkäufer）
③Ich will nur sagen, daß sie an ihm waren wie das Weicheste auf eines Vogels Unterseite. Er selbst hatte keine Lust daran, und wer von allen (ich sah mich um) durfte meinen, dieser Staat wäre um seinetwillen?
④Mein Gott, fiel es mir mit Ungestüm ein, so bist du also. Es gibt Beweise für deine Existenz. Ich habe sie alle vergessen und habe keinen je verlangt, denn welche ungeheuere Verpflichtung läge in deiner Gewißheit. Und doch, nun wird mir’s gezeigt. Dieses ist dein Geschmack, hier hast du Wohlgefallen. Daß wir doch lernten, vor allem aushalten und nicht urteilen. Welche sind die schweren Dinge? Welche die gnädigen? Du allein weißt es. Wenn es wieder Winter wird und ich muß einen neuen Mantel haben, – gib mir, daß ich ihn so trage, solang er neu ist.
⑤Es ist nicht, daß ich mich von ihnen unterscheiden will, wenn ich in besseren, von Anfang an meinigen Kleidern herumgehe und darauf halte, irgendwo zu wohnen. Ich bin nicht soweit.
English translation
①And indeed it was myself. I was busy imagining him, I undertook the work of imagining him, and sweat broke out on me with exertion. For I had to create him, as one creates a dead man, for whom there is no longer any evidence, no components; to be entirely accomplished within. I now know that it helped me a little to think of the many detached Christs made of stiff ivory lying around at all the antique dealers.The thought of some Pietà came and went -: all this probably only to evoke a certain inclination in which his long face held itself, and the desolate growth of beard in the shadow of his cheeks, and the final painful blindness of his closed expression, held obliquely upwards.
②I knew immediately that my representation was worthless. The unbounded surrender of his misery, unrestricted by caution or pretense, exceeded my capabilities.
③I only want to say that they were on him like the softest thing on a bird’s underside. He himself had no desire for it, and who among all (I looked around) could think that this state was for his sake?
④My God, it occurred to me with impetuosity, so this is how you are. There is evidence of your existence. I have forgotten them all and have never asked for any, for what a tremendous obligation would lie in your certainty.And yet, now it is revealed to me. This is your preference, here you find delight. If only we could learn to endure above all and not judge. What are the burdensome things? What are the merciful ones? You alone know. When winter comes again and I must have a new coat – grant me that I may wear it so long as it is new.
⑤It’s not that I want to differentiate myself from them when I walk around in better clothes that are truly mine from the beginning and insist on settling somewhere. I am not that far yet.
Consideration
If I were to introduce him, I would say that he is not a philosopher or a theologian, but a poet. It wouldn’t be enough to simply say he is a poet from the beginning. It is through these denials that the true value of being a poet emerges. Rainer Maria Rilke, in my opinion, is such a person.
Although I have not yet reached a conclusion, the theological and philosophical inquiries raised by the quotations (1) to (5) remain unanswered.
This is Rilke’s autobiographical work, but it appears as if he is writing “in disguise” as the character Marthe. However, this is also a creative piece with an underlying confessional aspect. He acknowledges that he perceives God (Jesus Christ) in a state of poverty, yet he confesses that he is unprepared for the unimaginable life of a newspaperman. Simultaneously, he raises questions about the Kantian notion of representation, suggesting that it is an essential faculty for comprehending external objects, but also viewing it as an activity of the individual subjective mind rather than an independent existence separate from the object.
Descartes attempted to provide a logical proof for the existence of God, while Kant argued that existence cannot be deduced solely from concepts, emphasizing the significance of “faith” (practical principles). In Christian theology, specifically without aligning to any particular denomination, “Vorstellung” refers to the concrete concepts and images that individuals hold about God, often associated with the concept of “Form.” For instance, in Catholicism, “Form” represents the embodiment or essential qualities of God’s divinity. Additionally, the emphasis lies on the incarnation, sacraments, and the recognition of the unseen mysteries concealed beneath the “visible.” Despite this ambivalence, Rilke acknowledges the limitations of capturing the representations of Christ and Mary in the Pietà as a questioning of existing religions.Rilke, although embracing this dual nature, expressed the poetic sensibility of one dressed in his Sunday best in modest attire, bearing the weight of profound responsibility in confirming the presence of God. （Mein Gott, fiel es mir mit Ungestüm ein, so bist du also ）Nevertheless, Rilke personally encountered a sensation of connection between God and the world.
He seeks to explore the existence of God and delve into the experience of limits（Grenze）, but this is done as a poet, confessing his fear of becoming impoverished. What were the limits for Rilke?
An antique statue of Christ, Mary of Pietà with historical value, keeping one feeling like wearing a new coat, the expensive clothes of the poor, the life of an unnamed bird?
Rilke does not explicitly define them as “poetry,” but rather portrays them in a sincere manner as the ascent and descent of the “soul,” which cannot be directly described by philosophy and theology.
＊＊＊＊
*Grenze, also explored by philosophers such as Kant and Hegel, are also pursued theologically by Bonhoeffer.
＊This is a thoughtful note. There are no answers. If you have any comments on the translation, please write them in the comments section.
Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge by Rainer Maria Rilke
原文 マルテ・ラウリス・ブリッゲの手記（ライナー・マリア・リルケ著）
①Und ich war es in der Tat. Ich war beschäftigt, ihn mir vorzustellen, ich unternahm die Arbeit, ihn einzubilden, und der Schweiß trat mir aus vor Anstrengung. Denn ich mußte ihn machen, wie man einen Toten macht, für den keine Beweise mehr da sind, keine Bestandteile; der ganz und gar innen zu leisten ist. Ich weiß jetzt, daß es mir ein wenig half, an die vielen abgenommenen Christusse aus steifigem Elfenbein zu denken, die bei allen Althändlern herumliegen. Der Gedanke an irgendeine Pietà trat vor und ab –: dies alles wahrscheinlich nur, um eine gewisse Neigung hervorzurufen, in der sein langes Gesicht sich hielt, und den trostlosen Bartnachwuchs im Wangenschatten und die endgültig schmerzvolle Blindheit seines verschlossenen Ausdrucks, der schräg aufwärts gehalten war.
②Ich wußte sofort, daß meine Vorstellung wertlos war. Die durch keine Vorsicht oder Verstellung eingeschränkte Hingegebenheit seines Elends übertraf meine Mittel.
（Zeitungsverkäufer）
③Ich will nur sagen, daß sie an ihm waren wie das Weicheste auf eines Vogels Unterseite. Er selbst hatte keine Lust daran, und wer von allen (ich sah mich um) durfte meinen, dieser Staat wäre um seinetwillen?
④Mein Gott, fiel es mir mit Ungestüm ein, so bist du also. Es gibt Beweise für deine Existenz. Ich habe sie alle vergessen und habe keinen je verlangt, denn welche ungeheuere Verpflichtung läge in deiner Gewißheit. Und doch, nun wird mir’s gezeigt. Dieses ist dein Geschmack, hier hast du Wohlgefallen. Daß wir doch lernten, vor allem aushalten und nicht urteilen. Welche sind die schweren Dinge? Welche die gnädigen? Du allein weißt es. Wenn es wieder Winter wird und ich muß einen neuen Mantel haben, – gib mir, daß ich ihn so trage, solang er neu ist.
⑤Es ist nicht, daß ich mich von ihnen unterscheiden will, wenn ich in besseren, von Anfang an meinigen Kleidern herumgehe und darauf halte, irgendwo zu wohnen. Ich bin nicht soweit.
There are various accounts of how Lafcadio Hearn, also known as Koizumi Yakumo, lost the vision in his left eye. Some claim that a rope from a swinging carousel struck his eye, while others attribute it to a cricket incident. What is clear is that he lost his father at a young age, struggled to fit in at Catholic school, and always concealed his blind left eye by keeping his head down. He wrote a story that goes like this. A young samurai was impoverished by the fall of his lord. The woman he took as his wife was beautiful and kind, but he began to think that he wanted to marry a more respectable woman from a more respectable family and rise in the world. So he left his wife and took a new one, and achieved the position he longed for, but all he could think of was his former wife in Kyoto. Years went by, and when the term of his master, the provincial governor, expired, this man again selfishly left even his new wife and went to Kyoto to see his former wife. His former wife’s house was so dilapidated that it seemed uninhabitable, but when he reached her favourite room, the light was on and she was sewing.
“When did you come back to Kyōto? How did you find your way here to me, through all those black rooms?”The woman greeted the man who had abandoned her, still as beautiful as the memories she held of him.
The man acknowledged his past mistakes and asked the woman to forgive him. The woman showed no sign of anger and quickly accepted the man, saying that he had left because he was ‘poor’ and that she was ‘happy’ with the time he had spent with him. The man decided that he would no longer be with anyone but her and lay down on the floor. The man and woman talked all night to make up for the time they had been apart. The man felt satisfied with their conversation and eventually fell asleep. However, when he woke up in the morning, he was shocked to find himself in a dilapidated mansion. He realized that the woman he thought he had been talking to was, sadly, a rotting corpse.
When the man pretended to be a stranger to his neighbour and asked “what had happened to his wife’s house”he person questioned said.”It used to belong to the wife of a Samurai who left the city several years ago. He divorced her in order to marry another woman before he went away; and she fretted a great deal, and so became sick. She had no relatives in Kyōto, and nobody to care for her; and she died in the autumn of the same year,—on the tenth day of the ninth month….”
The death of his wife represents the transience of this world. The critic Kobayashi Hideo wrote: ‘Because memories rescue us from becoming mere animals.’ This young samurai, being self-centered, also abandons his wife for the sake of his career, but he suffers from it and longs for the beautiful memories, thinking he can regain them. However, he comes to understand the impermanence when he realizes that his wife has long since become a rotting corpse. This is how I came to know the transience of the world. In contrast to transience, this could be called grace in Christian terms, as some people die without having the chance to learn about impermanence.
There is an anecdote in Buddhism that when the Buddha entered Vesali, he became aware of the rapid decline of life. However, he was willing to live beyond the normal human lifespan by divine power if his disciples and the people desired it. He told Ananda that he would live longer and serve others−if only they truly wished it.However, Ananda seemed somewhat preoccupied. He could not understand the Buddha’s true intentions. Apparently, an evil spirit had attached itself to Ananda, and his mind was being deceived by it. Upon seeing Ananda’s attitude, the Buddha decided to enter Nirvana after three months.
Just as the young samurai in the story chose to leave his beloved wife for his own benefit, so Arnanda remained selfish and did not try to understand the Buddha’s true intentions. It is this selfishness that hinders the understanding of impermanence. Koizumi Yakumo’s blindness in his left eye signifies loss and absence, while simultaneously reminding us of the ever-changing nature of things. He likely wanted to leave behind the ‘moment’ of his first wife’s life, which he had to cherish.
People tend to realize the importance of something after they have lost it and often forget their responsibilities. We must be prepared to understand the extent of our betrayal towards others.
However, I chose this story because this woman waited for her husband even while she was a ‘phantom’ (ayakashi). Some of the ghosts in Yakumo’s ‘Ghost Stories and Strange Tales’ are stories of demons who have become evil spirits. The woman had a tragic fate like that of Gretchen in Goethe’s Faust or Ophelia in Shakespeare’s Hamlet, mentally trapped but devoted. It may be true that true beauty and eternal love reside in the soul, as the Lord said to Samuel in the Old Testament: “For man sees those things that are apparent, but the Lord beholds the heart.” (1 Samuel 16:7). The being that became a phantom was not embellished or poisoned by “time”, but in a preserved state, “reconciled” with the man who abandoned her and remained in the world. The shadow of the phantom was there to remind the samurai of the impermanence of the world. Love encompasses feelings of jealousy and attachment, but it also possesses a selfless aspect that is not solely driven by personal gain and selfish desires.Therefore, love is always seeking direction as it carries significance for the soul.To others, this phantom may seem pathetic. Yet this is why it may bring grace to places overlooked by human perception.
“To me, this story was a delicate gear—driven by love, memory, and loss..”
Note on Koizumi Yakumo: Born as Lafcadio Hearn in 1850, Koizumi Yakumo was a writer of Greek-Irish descent who later naturalized as Japanese. His blindness in one eye, troubled youth, and eventual fascination with Japanese folklore deeply informed his ghost stories. Though rooted in Buddhism and Shinto traditions, Yakumo’s work often reflected a universal longing for grace, memory, and the unseen. His vision—both physical and literary—remains a powerful lens through which impermanence and devotion continue to resonate.
Und leider auch Theologie Durchaus studiert, mit heißem Bemühn. Da steh' ich nun, ich armer Tor, Und bin so klug als wie zuvor! And, alas, I studied theology too, with great zeal. Here I stand, poor fool, and am as wise as before! Goethe, 'Faust'：Der Tragödie erster Teil Nacht
I. Die teure Gnade（2）Nachfloge:Dietrich Bonhoeffer
・Aus der Rechtfertigung des Sünders in der Welt wurde die Rechtfertigung der Sünde und der Welt. Aus der teuren Gnade wurde die billige Gnade ohne Nachfolge.
・Sagte Luther, daß unser Tun umsonst ist,・・
Die Erkenntnis der Gnade war für ihn der letzte radikale Bruch mit der Sünde seines Lebens, niemals aber ihre Rechtfertigung. Sie war im Ergreifen der Vergebung die letzte radikale Absage an das eigenwillige Leben, sie war darin selbst erst eigentlich ernster Ruf zur Nachfolge. Sie war ihm jeweils „Resultat“, freilich göttliches, nicht menschliches Resultat. Dieses Resultat aber wurde von den Nachfahren zur prinzipiellen Voraussetzung einer Kalkulation gemacht. Darin lag das ganze Unheil. Ist Gnade das von Christus selbst ge-schenkte „Resultat“ christlichen Lebens, so ist dieses Leben keinen Augenblick dispensiert von der Nachfolge. Ist aber Gnade prinzipielle Voraussetzung meines christlichen Lebens, so habe ich damit im voraus die Rechtfertigung meiner Sünden, die ich im Leben in der Welt tue. Ich kann nun auf diese Gnade hin sündigen, die Welt ist ja im Prinzip durch Gnade gerechtfertigt. Ich bleibe daher in meiner bürgerlich-weltlichen Existenz wie bisher, es bleibt alles beim alten, und ich darf sicher sein, daß mich die Gnade Gottes bedeckt. Die ganze Welt ist unter dieser Gnade „christlich“ geworden, das Christentum aber ist unter dieser Gnade in nie dagewesener Weise zur Welt geworden.
・Wenn Faust am Ende seines Lebens in der Arbeit an der Erkenntnis sagt: „Ich sehe, daß wir nichts wissen können“, so ist das Resultat, und etwas durchaus anderes, als wenn dieser Satz von einem Studenten im ersten Semester über-nommen wird, um damit seine Faulheit zu rechtfertigen (Kierkegaard). Als Resultat ist der Satz wahr, als Voraussetzung ist er Selbstbetrug. Das bedeutet, daß eine Erkenntnis nicht getrennt werden kann von der Existenz, in der sie gewonnen ist. Nur wer in der Nachfolge Jesu im Verzicht auf alles, was er hatte, steht, darf sagen, daß er allein aus Gnaden gerecht werde.
English translation
・
Luther said that our actions are in vain.・・・etc
The recognition of grace was for him the final radical break with the sin of his life, but never its justification. In seizing forgiveness, it was the final radical renunciation of the self-willed life, and therein itself truly a serious call to discipleship.It was always a “result” for him, a divine result, not a human one. However, this result was turned by his descendants into a fundamental precondition for their calculations.
If grace is the “result” of Christian life given by Christ Himself, then this life is not exempt from discipleship for a single moment. But if grace is the fundamental prerequisite of my Christian life, then I already have the justification of my sins that I commit in my life in the world beforehand. I can now sin in light of this grace; after all, the world is justified in principle by grace.
So I remain in my bourgeois-worldly existence as before, everything stays the same, and I can be certain that God’s grace covers me. The whole world has become “Christian” under this grace, but Christianity, under this grace, has become the world in an unprecedented way.
・
When Faust, at the end of his life, says in his work on knowledge: “I see that we cannot know anything”, the result is quite different from when this sentence is adopted by a student in his first semester to justify his laziness (Kierkegaard). As a result the sentence is true, as a premise it is self-deception. This means that an insight cannot be separated from the existence in which it is gained. Only those who follow Jesus by renouncing everything they had can say that they are justified by grace alone.
＊Kierkegaard was also a Faust scholar.
Consideration
In this text, Bonhoeffer focuses his discussion on ‘grace’. According to him, ‘grace’ is described as the ultimate deliverance from his sins and a sincere call to follow him for its bestowal. However, he points out the problem of his descendants merely accepting this ‘grace’ through rational calculation. Many Christians assume that ‘grace’ forgives sins and act as if they can continue to sin. By doing so, they assure the world of being protected by God’s grace. It is mentioned that the entire world has become ‘Christian’, but as a result, it has become more secular than ever before.
The understanding of God’s grace is described as his final radical conversion and decisive break with the sins of life.
The main clause “When Faust at the end of his life says in the work of knowledge” is the previous sentence.
“Gnade als Voraussetzung ist billigste Gnade; Gnade als Resultat teure Gnade. Es ist erschreckend, zu erkennen, was daran liegt, in welcher Weise eine Es ist dasselbe Wort von der Rechtfertigung aus Gnaden allein; und doch führt der falsche Gebrauch desselben Satzes zur vollkommenenen Zerstörung seines Wesens.”
It corresponds to. Grace is the cheapest grace, and the grace that follows is a costly grace. Understanding what lies behind the way Christian truth is stated and used can be surprising. It has been equated with justification by grace alone (justificatio). But the wrong use of the same word leads to the complete destruction of its essence.
Thought
Some clergy argue that in Catholicism, “forgiveness” and rituals are more important than Lutheranism. There are many prominent priests who currently avoid discussing the issue of deceitful clergy. They often present superficial and empty statements, despite their growing influence. The same can be said for the faithful who reflect on these matters. It is a sin to not pay attention to the essence of things and this group paralysis affects these victims. They should realize that they are depriving themselves of faith.
Even in Catholicism, Pope Francis, in the Apostolic Constitution Paschite Glegem Dei, has made the observance of disciplinary penalties an obligation that cannot be separated from pastoral duties. Specifically, the responsibility for correctly applying these penalties lies with the pastor and the superior of each community. I can only lament the Church’s continuous tolerance and “wait-and-see” attitude towards the shameful acts and offenses committed in the sacrament of absolution that have been revealed this time. Bonhoeffer’s emphasis on the relationship between knowledge and being, faith and action, and his assertion that true knowledge is connected to liberation from self-deception; could this also be applicable to Catholicism?
reference
“From an actual lawsuit in Japan:
“A victimized woman shares her real name and confesses, having believed in “being saved from suffering by following the priest,” the approximately five years of “sexual violence” she endured from a Chilean priest in the Catholic Church and the unjust actions of the religious order.””
Und leider auch Theologie Durchaus studiert, mit heißem Bemühn. Da steh' ich nun, ich armer Tor, Und bin so klug als wie zuvor!
口惜しいが神学までも、熱心に勉強し、底の底まで究めて、こうしてたっているが、ずっと変わらず 愚か者のままだ！ ゲーテ・ファウスト「夜」Der Tragödie erster Teil Nacht
I. Die teure Gnade（2）Nachfloge:Dietrich Bonhoeffer
・Aus der Rechtfertigung des Sünders in der Welt wurde die Rechtfertigung der Sünde und der Welt. Aus der teuren Gnade wurde die billige Gnade ohne Nachfolge.
・Sagte Luther, daß unser Tun umsonst ist,・・
Die Erkenntnis der Gnade war für ihn der letzte radikale Bruch mit der Sünde seines Lebens, niemals aber ihre Rechtfertigung. Sie war im Ergreifen der Vergebung die letzte radikale Absage an das eigenwillige Leben, sie war darin selbst erst eigentlich ernster Ruf zur Nachfolge. Sie war ihm jeweils „Resultat“, freilich göttliches, nicht menschliches Resultat. Dieses Resultat aber wurde von den Nachfahren zur prinzipiellen Voraussetzung einer Kalkulation gemacht. Darin lag das ganze Unheil. Ist Gnade das von Christus selbst ge-schenkte „Resultat“ christlichen Lebens, so ist dieses Leben keinen Augenblick dispensiert von der Nachfolge. Ist aber Gnade prinzipielle Voraussetzung meines christlichen Lebens, so habe ich damit im voraus die Rechtfertigung meiner Sünden, die ich im Leben in der Welt tue. Ich kann nun auf diese Gnade hin sündigen, die Welt ist ja im Prinzip durch Gnade gerechtfertigt. Ich bleibe daher in meiner bürgerlich-weltlichen Existenz wie bisher, es bleibt alles beim alten, und ich darf sicher sein, daß mich die Gnade Gottes bedeckt. Die ganze Welt ist unter dieser Gnade „christlich“ geworden, das Christentum aber ist unter dieser Gnade in nie dagewesener Weise zur Welt geworden.
・Wenn Faust am Ende seines Lebens in der Arbeit an der Erkenntnis sagt: „Ich sehe, daß wir nichts wissen können“, so ist das Resultat, und etwas durchaus anderes, als wenn dieser Satz von einem Studenten im ersten Semester über-nommen wird, um damit seine Faulheit zu rechtfertigen (Kierkegaard). Als Resultat ist der Satz wahr, als Voraussetzung ist er Selbstbetrug. Das bedeutet, daß eine Erkenntnis nicht getrennt werden kann von der Existenz, in der sie gewonnen ist. Nur wer in der Nachfolge Jesu im Verzicht auf alles, was er hatte, steht, darf sagen, daß er allein aus Gnaden gerecht werde.
「Wenn Faust am Ende seines Lebens in der Arbeit an der Erkenntnis sagt」の主節はその前の文章の
“Gnade als Voraussetzung ist billigste Gnade; Gnade als Resultat teure Gnade. Es ist erschreckend, zu erkennen, was daran liegt, in welcher Weise eine evangelische Wahrheit ausgesprochen und gebraucht wird. Es ist dasselbe Wort von der Rechtfertigung aus Gnaden allein; und doch führt der falsche Gebrauch desselben Satzes zur vollkommenen Zerstörung seines Wesens.”
Was wäre auch Gnade, die nicht billige Gnade ist? Billige Gnade heißt Gnade als Lehre, als Prinzip, als System; heißt Sündenver-gebung als allgemeine Wahrheit, heißt Liebe Gottes als christliche Gottesidee. Wer sie bejaht, der hat schon Vergebung seiner Sünden. Die Kirche dieser Gnadenlehre ist durch sie schon der Gnade teilhaftig. In dieser Kirche findet die Welt billige Bedeckung ihrer Sünden, die sie nicht bereut und von denen frei zu werden sie erst recht nicht wünscht. Billige Gnade ist darum Leugnung des lebendigen Wortes Gottes, Leugnung der Menschwerdung des Wortes Gottes.
・・・
Billige Gnade ist Predigt der Vergebung ohne Buße, ist Taufe ohne Gemeindezucht, ist Abend-mahl ohne Bekenntnis der Sünden, ist Absolution ohne persönliche Beichte. Billige Gnade ist Gnade ohne Nachfolge, Gnade ohne Kreuz, Gnade ohne den lebendigen, menschgewordenen Jesus Christus.
Translation
・What is also grace that is not cheap grace? Cheap grace means grace as doctrine, as a principle, as a system; it means forgiveness of sins as a universal truth, it means the love of God as a Christian concept of God. Whoever affirms it has already received forgiveness for their sins.The church that holds to this doctrine of grace is already a partaker of grace through it. In this church, the world finds a cheap cover for its sins, which it does not repent of and from which it certainly does not want to be free. Cheap grace is therefore a denial of the living Word of God, a denial of the incarnation of the Word of God.・・・
・Cheap grace is preaching forgiveness without repentance, baptism without church discipline, communion without confession of sins, absolution without personal confession. Cheap grace is grace without discipleship, grace without the cross, grace without the living, incarnate Jesus Christ.
Dietrich Bonhoeffer（1906年2月4日 – 1945年4月9日）
Dietrich Bonhoeffer, born in 1906, was a Lutheran pastor and theologian. Under the Nazis, most churches collaborated with the Nazi regime, but Bonhoeffer, among others, founded the Confessing Church, which he fiercely and righteously opposed. He was executed in Flossenbürg concentration camp (KZ Flossenbürg) for his part in the assassination of Hitler. The present translation is an extract from I. Die teure Gnade from his early work, Nachfolge.
His writings are not characterized by metaphor or rhetoric, but they are not only theologically profound but also logical, ethical, and moral, and enlightening. Bonhoeffer interpreted “billige Gnade” as a disregard for the word of salvation, accepting it as a mere theory or doctrine without seeking repentance or transformation. According to him, such an acceptance of grace is not authentic grace but a “rejection of the living Word of God” and a denial of the doctrine that “the Word of God appears as a person.” Bonhoeffer argues that authentic grace must be more than a mere theory or doctrine but must have the power to transform the heart and life of the individual. Therefore, authentic grace is seen as going beyond doctrine and theory and should be practiced in the heart and life of the individual so that genuine transformation and conversion can take place. His interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount is particularly noteworthy, but above all, his discernment of what is right in the midst of the distortion of worldly morality and ethics. There are few Christians today who can accompany their practice in the face of the injustices that are happening throughout the Church.
As for accepting the guilt of assassination in a liminal state (Grenzfall) under Hitler’s regime, I would choose my words carefully.His reference to the ‘word of the living God’ (des lebendigen Wortes Gottes) should still be felt today.
＊”This is a translation and analysis done in the usual fragmented style of the ‘Cahiers’ journal. I acknowledge that it may be insufficient, but I appreciate your understanding.”
Was wäre auch Gnade, die nicht billige Gnade ist? Billige Gnade heißt Gnade als Lehre, als Prinzip, als System; heißt Sündenver-gebung als allgemeine Wahrheit, heißt Liebe Gottes als christliche Gottesidee. Wer sie bejaht, der hat schon Vergebung seiner Sünden. Die Kirche dieser Gnadenlehre ist durch sie schon der Gnade teilhaftig. In dieser Kirche findet die Welt billige Bedeckung ihrer Sünden, die sie nicht bereut und von denen frei zu werden sie erst recht nicht wünscht. Billige Gnade ist darum Leugnung des lebendigen Wortes Gottes, Leugnung der Menschwerdung des Wortes Gottes.
・・・
Billige Gnade ist Predigt der Vergebung ohne Buße, ist Taufe ohne Gemeindezucht, ist Abend-mahl ohne Bekenntnis der Sünden, ist Absolution ohne persönliche Beichte. Billige Gnade ist Gnade ohne Nachfolge, Gnade ohne Kreuz, Gnade ohne den lebendigen, menschgewordenen Jesus Christus.
ディートリッヒ・ボンヘッファーは、1906年生まれのルター派の牧師であり、神学者であった。ナチス政権下で殆どの教会がナチス政権に協力したが、ボンヘッファーはBekennende Kirche（告白教会）など設立し、正義感を持って激しく抵抗した。彼はヒトラー暗殺に加わった容疑でフロッセンビュルク強制収容所（KZ Flossenbürg）で処刑される。今回は彼の初期の著作である「Nachfolge」（継承・The Cost of Discipleship）のI. Die teure Gnade（高価な恩寵）から抜粋したものを翻訳。
On 22 February 2024, the closing price of the Nikkei Stock Average surpassed the record high of 38,915.87 yen set on 29 December 1989 at the peak of Japan’s bubble economy. Additionally, a new variant of the NISA (Nippon Individual Savings Account) was introduced in Japan. Japan’s business outlook index is at a new high after Nvidia’s strong results. There is a possibility of profit-taking selling. However, this is the start of a new era. The implementation of the new NISA policy has led me to believe that stock prices will continue to rise. This is because Japanese stocks are generally more stable than European stocks, and there are currently no concerns related to real estate, unlike during the bursting of the bubble and the collapse of Lehman Brothers. Additionally, although it is difficult to say definitively, the ongoing war may also be contributing to the positive performance of stock prices. This can be observed from the fact that many companies, who had previously commented on events such as the earthquake in eastern Japan, conflicts in the Middle East, and the war in Ukraine and Russia, have not made any statements regarding the situation in Gaza this time. It is important to note that these observations are not conspiracy theories but rather a reasonable analysis of historical stock price patterns during times of war to gain a better understanding of their impact on the market.
I am not an expert on the subject, so I will not go into detail, but if you are thinking about your future life, I think it is inevitable that you should learn to invest and think about increasing your wealth if you are going to make it in “Japan”.
It can be said that the days of building wealth with fixed-term deposits have returned. However, I decided to address this issue in this column because poverty is still a persistent problem and I wanted to reflect on it a little before criticism of those who did not successfully take advantage of this policy starts years later.
Ⅱ. Amartya Sen and the Capability Approach
Amartya Sen, an Indian economist and professor at Harvard University, has no clear connection with literature, but the economics he proposes is full of elements of liberation, freedom and the pursuit of happiness, which are also themes in literature. He is an authority on welfare economics and social choice theory, which use advanced mathematics and logic in economics, and concepts such as adaptive preference, the capability approach and ‘human security’ are sometimes taught in high school courses in Japan today.
Sen’s interest in poverty and its impact on individuals can be traced back to his childhood experiences in India, particularly observing the devastating effects of the Bengal famine. His research led him to define poverty as the lack of basic capabilities, emphasizing that individuals should have the freedom to live a life they have reason to value.
In 1998, Sen was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for his contributions to welfare economics and his analysis of economic policies. Unlike earlier assumptions that focused solely on the macroeconomy, Sen argued that societal progress should be measured by the well-being and freedom of its individual members.
Sen’s emphasis on human happiness and flourishing highlights the importance of individual freedoms and self-determination in economic development. His ideas challenge the notion that a successful economy is solely determined by its sheer size or growth, stressing the significance of ensuring individual rights and capabilities.
In conclusion, while Amartya Sen’s work is primarily within the field of economics, it incorporates a broader perspective that recognizes the importance of human happiness and the freedom of individuals.
That is why various studies have been conducted on poverty. Margaret Thatcher famously stated that ‘poverty is a lack of character.’ Other studies have examined different approaches to addressing poverty, and even today, there are contrasting opinions on whether the solution lies in giving assistance or in changing our way of life.
A century ago, the writer George Orwell experienced poverty firsthand and remarked that it “crushes the future.” In his novels about the struggles of the poor, he also observed that they would often prioritize indulging in luxuries over consuming healthy vegetables.
Amartya Sen’s economics took a further step by focusing on poverty as an inability to exercise choice and initiative. One might question whether studying Sen’s economics is outdated now or if there are aspects of it that need reevaluation from an investment standpoint. However, I have chosen to examine it primarily from an ethical perspective.
Sen’s economics posits that inclusive and sustainable economic growth is achievable by not only improving economic indicators but also by promoting individual freedom and equality of opportunity. A thriving economy alone does not signify true societal success if inequality and poverty persist. Sen’s economics considers not only economic outcomes but also people’s quality of life and well-being as essential indicators of a healthy economy. Assessing the health of an economy requires a broader perspective beyond economic growth rates and rising stock prices.
Ⅲ. Keynesian economics and the Japanese economy.
The benefits of capitalism are described as efficient allocation of resources, innovation and efficiency improvements through competition, and the protection of individual freedom and property rights. It is also claimed that policies based on Keynesian economic theory during the ‘Showa’ period helped to realise the dream. One of the successful policies of this period was the use of fiscal policy. Keynes advocated the use of fiscal policy to promote economic growth and job creation through fiscal stimulus and public investment. Also important is the theory of imperfectly competitive markets. Keynes argued that when markets are not perfectly competitive, prices and wages do not fluctuate flexibly and stimulating demand has a positive effect on employment and output. Stressing the importance of active government fiscal policy and demand management to help the unemployed, Keynes proposed policies to deal with problems such as business cycles and unemployment, taking into account how the economy would function in an imperfect market environment rather than a perfectly competitive market. These included a ‘mainstay industrial policy’, major public works and infrastructure investment, increased economic growth and employment, an independent Bank of Japan and the use of effective monetary policy. In addition, manufacturing industries such as automobiles and electricity gained strength in trade policy and contributed to increased international cooperation.
On the other hand, there were drawbacks, one of which was the risk of inflation. While Keynesian economics stimulates the economy by stimulating demand, it has been criticised that this could lead to inflation in the long run. The second is the ability of the government to implement it. Keynesian economics requires active government intervention, but the government’s implementation capacity is sometimes seen as limited, making it difficult to implement effective policies.
Next, ‘communism’ refers to a political system that emphasises the role of government in solving poverty and focuses on economic and social management by the state. Communism rejects the private property system of capitalism and seeks to share the means of production and distribute resources equally. The first government of communism is the state, whereas the first principle of capitalism and Keynesian economics is the market. Communism differs from Keynesian policies in terms of economic and social structures and the division of roles. In communism, the role of the state is significant, leaving the central coordination of economic activity and the elimination of poverty to the state, whereas in Keynesian policies, while assuming a market economy, economic stability and public welfare are pursued through state intervention.
One of the reasons why capitalism, welfare, and support for the vulnerable have not worked well in Japan is the limited effectiveness of the basic principles of capitalism, such as the pursuit of profit, in addressing social problems and providing adequate welfare. This highlights the limitations of relying solely on the market as a solution. The lack of sufficient welfare and support in recent times presents a challenge that goes beyond the capabilities of the market alone, requiring solutions that extend beyond market mechanisms. Additionally, the issue of political decision-making adds complexity, as welfare and support for the vulnerable are public goods that require government intervention. Furthermore, political decision-making is often complicated by conflicting interests and values.
Ⅳ Well-being and economics
To what extent does economics take happiness into account? First of all, economics is not a discipline that is directly concerned with happiness itself. Economics is difficult to describe in many ways, but it focuses on the allocation of resources and economic activity, and studies the economic factors involved in people’s behavior and choices. Amartya Sen’s economics has brought economics to focus not only on welfare through wages, but also on other factors. Japan has a lower crime rate than other countries, and at the minimum wage level, even without education, you can live above the minimum if you do not choose to work, but this is only one aspect of the guarantee that wages provide.
Although much depends on individual subjective feelings and factors when considering happiness, the suffering caused by poverty should not be dismissed as ‘pampering’ or ‘laziness’. Sen focused on the caste system in India, but what should be done in Japan? One possible solution is to address ‘developmental disabilities’. The increase in the number of reports is said to be due to increased awareness through social media and a lower threshold for identifying the disorder. According to Toshio Kawai, professor emeritus at Kyoto University, “Before the focus on developmental disorders, there were many consultations on self-harm and overeating. This suggests a change in attitude towards mental health issues. In Japan, the need for ‘independence’ has increased compared to the Showa period. In that era, there was a greater division of social roles between men and women, expectations regarding marriage and childbearing, and an emphasis on cooperation rather than individuality. Communities thrived on subjectivity, and lifelong employment and conformity to social norms were the norm. But these dynamics are changing. Developmental disabilities show a wide range of symptoms, but a common feature is considered to be a lack of initiative.
Although the 1995 White Paper on Disability took the positive view that ‘disability is individuality’, we often confuse individuality with subjectivity. Initiative refers to an individual’s ability or tendency to have and act on their own will, beliefs and thoughts. A proactive person is able to pursue goals and express themselves according to their own values.
Individuality, on the other hand, refers to a person’s unique traits and characteristics. It is what distinguishes each person from others and plays a major role in creativity and expression. No matter how talented and brilliant an individual may be, if ‘individuality’ is stifled by social oppression and poverty, it will lead to a lack of self-reliance and even self-determination. The emphasis on subjectivity is therefore linked to Amartya Sen’s concept of capability. This is not just about treating the mind of an individual; it is about tackling the economy and society as a whole.
last
Finally.
The baptised believer is in the “apostolate of the faithful”, it is said. Spreading the Gospel in society has become a ‘vocation’ in the broadest sense, but in doing so the economy cannot be left out, not only to follow Jesus’ example of saving the poor, but also, as the Lord tells Moses, to ” Let the scales be just and the weights equal, let the dry measure be just and the liquid measure be equal. I am the Lord your God, who led you away from the land of Egypt.” (Leviticus 19:36). It is also important to link this to efforts to create a just society and to tackle poverty and inequality, using economic and other perspectives. The example of developmental disabilities is just one example, but the definition of poverty is becoming more complex as poverty is not only financial poverty but also relative poverty. But we must not be so false as to pretend that we have forgotten, as if faith would resolve everything. It is precisely the suffering that cannot be easily separated from the reward or happiness, nor easily measured or compared, that we must recognize.
If we were to end this criticism without removing the ethical aspect of the criticism, we might be rich and we might be poor. The experience would be different depending on which side of the story you think you are on. Am I poor or am I rich? However, the opposite entity may be the ‘mirror’ that we will eventually become ourselves. For example, we may be successful, but our children may be poor or disabled. We talk about our children as if they will be successful if they go to university, but they may suddenly become disabled. Suppose you now live in a beautiful house, you have acquired many skills and you have worked hard and positively. And you may be proud of yourself for having worked hard without complaining. But that doesn’t mean you can’t criticise people who complain. Because maybe the person who carried or printed the book you studied made it while complaining. There is an invisible ‘poverty and labour’ in this. I separate the words about this for the majority from the words for the few. If someone is in trouble, it may be a matter of friendship to give them a pep talk, but to speak of poverty to the majority is not something that should be done.
Unfortunately, the world is full of such ‘experts’. If you have something to pray about tonight, I hope you will pray with this in mind and think about what you should do.
Let us walk in the footsteps of Jesus, finding our own happiness even in times of adversity.
(Author, original citation to be provided at a later date (after April 2024) due to house moving work.)
＊1st Corinthians : 13 : 12: Now we see through a glass darkly. But then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part, but then I shall know, even as I am known.
La pesanteur et la grâce （Gravity and grace）Simon Weil
・Tous les mouvements naturels de l’âme sont régis par des lois analogues à celles de la pesanteur matérielle. La grâce seule fait exception.
・Il faut toujours s’attendre à ce que les choses se passent conformément à la pesanteur, sauf intervention du surnaturel.
・Deux forces règnent sur l’univers : lumière et pesanteur.
Translation
・The natural movements of the soul follow laws similar to those of physical gravity, with the exception of grace.
・It is always to be expected that things will happen in accordance with gravity, unless supernatural forces intervene.
・The universe is governed by two forces: light and gravity.
note 1
So begins Gravity and Grace, a compilation of Simone Weil’s posthumous notebooks. She tries to explain human behaviour and interaction around the concepts of pesanteur (gravity) and grâce (grace).
She explains that the natural movements of our soul follow laws similar to the physical law of gravity. The only thing other than gravity is grace, and we should always expect things to proceed according to gravity, unless there is supernatural intervention.
“Tous les mouvements naturels de l’âme sont régis par des lois analogues à celles de la pesanteur matérielle. La grâce seule fait exception.“
The grammatical features of this sentence are as follows
Subject: ‘Tous les mouvements naturels de l’âme’ (all the natural movements of the mind)
Predicate: ‘sont régis par des lois analogues à celles de la pesanteur matérielle’ (governed by the same laws as physical gravity).
Auxiliary verb: ‘sont’ (to be).
Verb: ‘régis’ (to be governed).
Object: ‘des lois analogues à celles de la pesanteur matérielle’ (laws similar to those of physical gravity).
Adverb: ‘seule’ (the only one).
La grâce seule fait exception. (But only grace is an exception).
＊It is as though the bestowal of grace rests solely in God, the epitome of singularity.
Le Roi Lear et la pesanteur.
・Pesanteur. – D’une manière générale, ce qu’on attend des autres est déterminé par les effets de la pesanteur en nous ; ce qu’on en reçoit est déterminé par les effets de la pesanteur en eux. Parfois cela coïncide (par hasard), souvent non.
・Pourquoi est-ce que dès qu’un être humain témoigne qu’il a peu ou beaucoup besoin d’un autre, celui-ci s’éloigne ? Pesanteur.
Lear, tragédie de la pesanteur. Tout ce qu’on nomme bassesse est un phénomène de pesanteur.
・D’ailleurs le terme de bassesse l’indique. L’objet d’une action et le niveau de l’énergie qui l’alimente, choses distinctes.・・・・・・
Translation
・Pesanteur. – Generally speaking, what we expect from others is determined by the effects of in us; what we receive from them is determined by the effects of gravity in them. Sometimes this coincides (by chance), but often it does not.
・Why is it that as soon as one person testifies that he needs another a little or a lot, the other person moves away? Pesanteur.
・Lear, tragedy of heavyiness. Everything that is called vileness is a phenomenon of gravity.
・Moreover, the term vileness indicates this. The object of an action and the level of energy that feeds it are different things. ・・・・・・
note2
Matthew 23:12 – says, ‘But whoever has exalted himself, shall be humbled. And whoever has humbled himself, shall be exalted.’, but here the scribes and Pharisees were sitting on Moses’ throne. They put heavy burdens on people’s shoulders, but they would not do anything themselves. Jesus told the crowd and his disciples that there was no ‘teacher’ or ‘master’ on earth, only Christ.
Simone Weil equated William Shakespeare’s King Lear with gravity. Lear asks his three sisters about the depth of their love for him. The two sisters were verbal, but the youngest, Cordelia, could not speak, but showed it from her heart. He could not forgive Cordelia, so he banished her and shared his territory with the other two who had shown him affection. Then his tragedy began. In making this superlative judgement of Lear, he was betrayed by two of his daughters and lost his soldiers through indecision.
What Lear shared with them was territory, a symbol of his wealth, but as if he had shared his organs, his fate was cast into exile. Having misjudged who to trust, Lear ends up losing Cordelia, who truly loved and saved him.
The Bible also says in Proverbs, “Whoever responds before he listens, demonstrates himself to be foolish and deserving of confusion.” (Proverbs 18:13), but also in verse 12, “The heart of a man is exalted before it is crushed and humbled before it is glorified.”, verse 15, “A prudent heart shall possess knowledge. And the ear of the wise seeks doctrine.”, not just superficial things, but a wise and enlightened mind.
The preoccupation with ”gift expaned” in Proverbs (Proverbs 18:16) is precisely what makes following Jesus a priority and warns against dependence between people: ‘Whoever loves father or mother more than me is not worthy of me. And whoever loves son or daughter above me is not worthy of me.’ (Matthew 10:37). “But it is not to be this way among you. Instead, whoever would become greater shall be your minister;and whoever will be first among you shall be the servant of all.” (Mark 10:43-44).
Coincidentally, Leah said these words when she lost her soldier. “O, reason not the need: our basest beggars “Lear here questions his own reason and his material needs. This line foreshadows the beginning of King Lear’s spiritual collapse and self-reflection, forcing him to reassess his own folly and values.
Again, it is interesting to note that reviewing one’s mistakes is also accompanied by spiritual collapse, falling into what psychologists call psychological defences or a collapse of self-esteem. Catholics (and Christians in general) regard the discovery of sin as the starting point for repentance and conversion. Indeed, recent trials involving Catholics have revealed a psychological defence mechanism to avoid a collapse of self-esteem in clergy who break church law, who protest their innocence, and in lay people who beat their victims. It is as if they cannot see themselves in the mirror (now they see dimly as in a mirror: 1 Corinthians 13:12), as if love is the key to perfect knowledge and understanding, and that perfection is realised in love, but they are unwilling to see even that love. So God’s love and human sin are opposites, but in the same reflection. The art of recognising this is shown in Psalm 51, where King David confesses his sins before God and asks for forgiveness with a repentant heart. I note that in this Psalm King David expresses that he “repents with a sincere heart, looks at his sins and is honest with God in the depth of his heart”.
Jesus Christ also speaks of His teaching in Matthew 18:21-22, which calls for forgiveness to be given to sinners “not seven times, but seventy times” (Matthew 18:21-22). This teaching points to a heart attitude of looking at the sins of others and offering forgiveness.
D’ailleurs le terme de bassesse l’indique. l’objet d’une action et le niveau de l’ The act of lowering is indeed King Lear’s misjudgement, but the ‘sustenance’ of the subsequent wavering of his spirit with the realisation of his folly towards himself is the equivalent of staring into a mirror. The ‘sustenance’ of King Lear’s subsequent wavering spirit with the realisation of his own folly is equivalent to his gazing into a mirror. He was able to recognise the love of his three wives because he had recognised their love for him. (Although Cordelia is killed.)
＊Est-ce que (What) Interrogative
Vulgarity and Grace.
・Le bas et le superficiel sont au même niveau. Il aime violemment mais bassement : phrase possible. Il aime profondément mais bassement : phrase impossible.
・ ––− une vertu basse est peut-être à certains égards mieux à l’épreuve des difficultés, des tentations et des malheurs qu’une vertu élevée.
・La grâce, c’est la loi du mouvement descendant.
Translation
・The base and the superficial are on the same level. He loves fiercely but basely: possible proposition. He loves deeply but basely: impossible sentence.
・A low virtue is perhaps in some respects a better proof against difficulties, temptations, and misfortunes than a high virtue.
・Grace is the law of downward motion.
note3
––une vertu basse est peut-être à certains égards mieux à l’épreuve des difficultés, des tentations et des malheurs qu’une vertu élevée ––According to Simone Weil, a lower virtue may, in certain respects, prove to be more resilient in the face of difficulties, temptations, and misfortunes than a higher virtue. She contends that actions and feelings rooted in lower-dimensional motives and emotions hold equal value. In other words, she does not diminish the significance of lower dimensions but instead embraces them as if they represent the truth.
According to Weil, the concept of ‘gravity’ (pesanteur) represents the notion of ‘lower’ behavior and emotions in humanity. She argues that these ‘lower’ aspects are a manifestation of gravity. Additionally, she asserts that both ‘low’ and ‘superficial’ are comparable in their level of significance. The pronoun ‘he’ she uses alludes to the fact that intense emotions can coexist with lowly behavior, as exemplified by characters like King Lear. Moreover, Weil contends that it is impossible to simultaneously love in both a lowly and deep manner. She does not shy away from acknowledging the impact of heaviness and vulgarity in human behavior and emotions. It is as if she is gazing into a philosophical reflection, rather than an ecclesiastical one tied to religious institutions. Weil believes that actions and feelings originating from ‘lower motives’ are of equal value to those rooted in higher dimensions.
While there are no direct stories in Christianity that parallel King Lear’s mistakes, there are teachings and warnings in Christianity regarding human judgment and deceit. One such example is the parable of the Pharisees.
In the course of Jesus’ numerous miracles, the Pharisees are portrayed as religious leaders who sought to emphasize their adherence to religious laws and principles. However, they were self-centered and proud, as their focus on external actions and beliefs lacked inner transformation and genuine love for others. Through this parable, Christianity cautions against superficial faith and self-righteous attitudes, asserting that true faith is rooted in inner transformation and compassionate love for others.
In the case of King Lear, his initial choice may have appeared to be the right one, but it ultimately proved to be a mistake. This story not only teaches us the importance of focusing on inner truth and love rather than superficial judgments and words, but it also speaks to the concept of grace, which is bestowed upon us even though we cannot defy gravity.
Gravity can be succinctly translated as the scientific term ‘Zwaartekracht’, referring to the weight of an object on Earth due to the gravitational pull exerted by the planet. It encompasses the combined force of the universal gravitational pull of Earth and its rotation. The nature of mass suggests that objects do not attract each other directly, but instead, they distort the space around them, resulting in mutual attraction. While gravity governs the entire universe, its force is inherently weak, allowing birds to soar and us to move about freely. It remains weak as long as it asserts its dominion.
Leah’s ability to feel and suffer from Cordelia’s presence was subject to the influence of this never-ending, but never overpowering, force of gravity. So, too, her love must have been intertwined with God’s love.
This profound realization from Simone Weil’s choice of ‘Gravity’ suggests that the presence of gravity is necessary for the emergence of its opposite, ‘grace’.
＊This is the Cahier, but if you have any suggestions, please contact us.
主語：「Tous les mouvements naturels de l’âme」（心の自然な動きすべて）
述語：「sont régis par des lois analogues à celles de la pesanteur matérielle.」（物理的な重力と同様の法則によって統制される。）
助動詞：「sont」（～である）
動詞：「régis」（支配される）
目的語：「des lois analogues à celles de la pesanteur matérielle」（物理的な重力と同様の法則）
副詞：「seule」（唯一・唯一の人）
「La grâce seule fait exception.」（ただし、恩寵のみは例外である）
＊まるで「恩寵」を与える存在が神という唯一性であるかのようだ。
リア王と重力
・Pesanteur. – D’une manière générale, ce qu’on attend des autres est déterminé par les effets de la pesanteur en nous ; ce qu’on en reçoit est déterminé par les effets de la pesanteur en eux. Parfois cela coïncide (par hasard), souvent non.
・Pourquoi est-ce que dès qu’un être humain témoigne qu’il a peu ou beaucoup besoin d’un autre, celui-ci s’éloigne ? Pesanteur.
Lear, tragédie de la pesanteur. Tout ce qu’on nomme bassesse est un phénomène de pesanteur.
・D’ailleurs le terme de bassesse l’indique. L’objet d’une action et le niveau de l’énergie qui l’alimente, choses distinctes.・・・・・・
D’ailleurs le terme de bassesse l’indique. L’objet d’une action et le niveau de l’énergie qui l’alimente, choses distinctes. 低めることへの行為とはリア王の誤った判断のことをさすが、その後のリア王の自分自身への愚かさへの気づきと共に精神が揺らいでいくことについてのは「糧」というのは、鏡を見つめたということに相当する。何故なら、彼は三女の愛に気づけたからだ。（但し、三女コーデリアは殺されるが）
・est-ce que （What) 疑問系
低めたものと「恩寵」
・Le bas et le superficiel sont au même niveau. Il aime violemment mais bassement : phrase possible. Il aime profondément mais bassement : phrase impossible.
・ ––− une vertu basse est peut-être à certains égards mieux à l’épreuve des difficultés, des tentations et des malheurs qu’une vertu élevée.
この引用は、シモーヌ・ヴェイユが低いものと浅いものについて考えていることを示している。ここでは引用が長くなってしまうので割愛させてもらったが、––une vertu basse est peut-être à certains égards mieux à l’épreuve des difficultés, des tentations et des malheurs qu’une vertu élevée.−−彼女は、低次元の動機や感情に基づく行動や感情は、高次元のものと同じように価値があると主張している。言い換えれば、彼女は低次元のものを軽視することなく、まるで真理がそこにあるかのように汲み取っています。
Simone Weil, ‘Illusions’ (Gravity and Grace).La pesanteur et la grâce
・On se porte vers une chose parce qu’on croit qu’elle est bonne, et on y reste enchaîné parce qu’elle est devenue nécessaire.
・Les choses sensibles sont réelles en tant que choses sensibles, mais irréelles en tant que biens.
・L’apparence a la plénitude de la réalité, mais en tant qu’apparence. En tant qu’autre chose qu’apparence, elle est erreur.
・L’illusion concernant les choses de ce monde ne concerne pas leur existence, mais leur valeur.
・L’image de la caverne se rapporte à la valeur. Nous ne possédons que des ombres d’imitations de biens. C’est aussi par rapport au bien que nous sommes captifs, enchaînés (attachement). Nous acceptons les fausses valeurs qui nous apparaissent, et quand nous croyons agir, nous sommes en réalité immobiles, car nous restons dans le même système de valeurs.
・ceux qui ont nourri et vêtu le Christ ne savaient pas que c’était le Christ.
English
・We are drawn to something because we believe it is good, and we remain attached to it because it has become necessary.
・Sensible things exist as sensible things, but are unreal as goods. Images possess the fullness of reality, but only as images.
・The illusion regarding the things of this world pertains not to their existence, but to their value.
・The illusion concerning the things of this world does not concern their existence, but their value. The image of the cave is related to value. We only possess shadowy imitations of goods. It is also in relation to goodness that we are captives, bound (through attachment). We accept false values that appear to us, and when we believe we are acting, we are actually immobile, as we remain within the same system of values.
・Those who fed and clothed Christ did not know that it was Christ.
１L’apparence
L’apparence means ‘appearance’ in French, but in legal philosophy and sometimes in psychology it is translated as ‘provisional image’. While a virtuality has the integrity of reality, it can also be misleading, not only with regard to the appearance of reality, but also with regard to other objects. This may be a feeling that is not common in Japanese concepts. Although Husserl distinguished between ‘imaginative action’ and ‘fantasy’, in phenomenology Husserl provided an approach to the idea of the provisional and value. The distinction between phenomena (physical sensation) and value (provisional representation) is also mentioned in Weil’s quotation.
・ceux qui ont nourri et vêtu le Christ ne savaient pas que c’était le Christ.
・Phonological beauty: in this sentence there is a balance between vowels and consonants and a sense of rhythm. For example, the phrase ‘nourri et vêtu’ feels beautiful because the sounds are delicate and echo each other.
２ ’provisional image’ versus ‘conjectural’.
Provisional image refers to an image in the mind of an object or event that has not been directly experienced in the real world, based on imagination or speculation. Assumption is an unquestioning perception distorted by subjectivity with concepts that are different from provisional images. In essence, provisional images are realistic and contain misperceptions, but they are also correctable. Assumptions, on the other hand, are often not correctable. For example, in advertising and marketing, provisional images are used to attract people and make them stick to a product or service. We need to make sure that we do not miss the real value and benefit behind individual products and services. In the area of self-development and relationships, it is also important to focus on one’s own true needs and wellbeing, rather than getting caught up in the provisional images and expectations of others.
３ ’Good’ and ‘justice’.
Weil’s declamations seem to have philosophy at their heart, even though they are poetic in nature. This quotation, for example, may be based on the ‘good’ and ‘justice’ of ‘Platonic’ philosophy. In Plato’s ‘Republic justice is attributed to the soul. I think that the image of a ‘cave’ here is undoubtedly an analogy for the cave in Plato’s ‘Republic’.
The parable describes a situation in which people are trapped in a cave and live by seeing shadows projected on the walls by a fire at the back of the cave. They believed the shadows to be real and never left the cave. However, when a person escapes from the cave and sees the outside world, he or she discovers true reality for the first time. There were concepts and things that were different from the shadows he saw in the cave, such as light, colour and shape. This person discovered new knowledge and truths and tried to communicate their existence to the others in the cave, but they were convinced of the shadow world and refused to accept the truths of the outside world. This parable represents Plato’s ideas about the acquisition of knowledge and truth. The cave symbolises the material world and sensory experience, while the shadow represents knowledge through perception. On the other hand, the world outside, as seen by the person leaving the cave, would refer to the world of ideas and metaphysical truths. Plato’s parable of the cave is a metaphor for the fact that we can only see things in their provisional image or shadow form, not in their real form. The people in the cave only see shadows projected on the walls and cannot know the true reality, so although there are ‘provisional images’ in the cave, they cannot be said to be the true existence or reality. It suggests that the world we perceive is part of reality and that there is a truth or essence beyond it. It emphasises that ‘provisional images’ exist in some sense, but that they are not a complete picture of truth or reality.
This is also an example of the fact that truth and knowledge must be obtained through reason, and that true understanding is impossible as long as we are trapped in the material world and sense experience.
In Plato’s Republic, the desire to know the truth about justice interacts with the idea of the good, which is also characteristic of the French word Nous ne possédons que des ombres d’imitations de biens. C’est aussi par rapportau bien que nous sommes captifs, enchaînés. In Bient in, it can mean ‘good’, but it can also mean ‘possession’.
For example, what does it mean when translated as ‘property’?
We are trapped in a cave whose walls reflect the shadows of our possessions. But these shadows are not real possessions, they are only imitations. Because we are trapped in these shadows, we cannot know true ownership and luxury. If we could come out of the cave, we would experience true possessions and true wealth.
Even as ‘property’ he points to our obsession with material possessions and our missing out on true happiness and abundance.
So what if we think in terms of the good, which is the correct translation?
Trapped in a cave, what we see is not the real world but shadows, which are imitations or representations of reality. Shadows reflect true reality, but are themselves incomplete, and we cannot know true reality accurately. Goodness’ becomes the knowledge and rational understanding of true reality. By going outside the cave and seeing true reality directly, we can understand and accept true goodness. However, trapped in the cave, we cannot have knowledge of the true good and remain trapped in the shadow of mere imitation.
This parable is consistent with Plato’s advocacy of an ideal state and his insistence that philosophers should play a role in pursuing the true good and communicating it to others. It also suggests that in order to gain knowledge of the true good, we need to go outside the cave and engage in self-knowledge and self-transcendence.
Continuing the section, Weil adds a passage from the biblical Gospel of Matthew, chapter 26, verse 37, where he gives him food and clothing without recognising him as Jesus. This shows the difficulty of understanding Christ’s presence and the need to open people’s spiritual eyes. By treating this account in a provisional image, Weil may have been trying to express the universal theme of people’s contact with Christ (or a divine being) but their inability to understand his presence and truth, as well as the difficulty of mystical experience.
The biblical position on ‘property’ (in money),
Matthew : 6 : 19 – 21
Do not choose to store up for yourselves treasures on earth: where rust and moth consume, and where thieves break in and steal. Instead, store up for yourselves treasures in heaven: where neither rust nor moth consumes, and where thieves do not break in and steal. For where your treasure is, there also is your heart.
This is not just a denial of material possessions, but a question of where the heart is. Those who gave food and clothing without knowing Jesus may have earthly possessions, heavenly treasures and ‘heart’. This is also related to Platonic ‘goodness’ and ‘justice’. As Plato wrote in the Republic, biblical ‘goodness’ and ‘justice’ do not just enrich the inner life of an individual. He believed that an individual’s goodness and justice is made up of a collection of individual goodness and justice. He taught that through the pursuit and practice of goodness and justice by individual souls, the nation as a whole can also realise goodness and justice. Reality, however, exists alongside provisional images and is difficult to put into practice. Provisional images’ are questions for the philosopher.
Chris Kyogetu 